戴偉棟-新編簡明英語語言學教程筆記

1、戴版語言學Chapter OneIntroductionPart oneWhat is linguistics?1. Definitionlinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article

2、before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists ' task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is“what is said 2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguisticsthe study of lang

3、uage as a wholethe core of linguisticsPhoneticsthe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonologythe study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings incommunication.Morphologythe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to formwords.Syntaxthe study

4、 of the rules for sentence formationSemanticsthe study of meaning.Pragmaticsthe study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguisticsthe study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society fromthe core of the branch.Psycholingu

5、isticsthe study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well aslanguage acquisition.Applied linguisticsthe application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching ,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1

6、) prescriptive vs. descriptivebehavioprescriptive the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“ correct and standardusing language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptivethe linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.M

7、odern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronicthe description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronicthe description of a language as it changes through timethe historicaldevelopment of language over a period of timeanother name: historical linguist

8、ics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1) writing system is always“ invented by its users to record speech.(2) speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)

9、speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4) speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the “ revised record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguistF. de Saussuresociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities gov

10、erning the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Languethe abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speechcommunity.abstract & stable.Parolethe realization of language in actual useconcrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by

11、 American linguist Noam Chomskypsychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence the ideal user's knowledge of the ruleslaonf ghuisage.Performancethe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern lingui

12、sticsThe beginning of modern linguistics- the publication of Saussure '“s Coursein General Linguistics in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3) ML doesn 't force languages into a La-tbinased fram

13、ework.Part TwoWhat is language?1. Definitionlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Systemelements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrarythere is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol standsfor.Vocalthe primary medium

14、for all language is sound.Humanlanguage is human-specific.2. Design featuresproposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationhuman-specific.(1) Arbitrarinessthere is no logical co

15、nnection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivitylanguage is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its usersusers can produce and understand sentences that they have

16、neverheard before.(3) Duality(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of twosets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.sound & meaning(4) Displacementlanguage can be us

17、ed to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places It doesn 't matter howfar away the topic is of conversation is in time or spacefree from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmiss

18、ionthe capacity for language is genetically based while the details of andlanguage system should be taught and learned.language is passed down from one generationto the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of lang

19、uage that when people use language to communicatewith each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the “ content of they are actually taking advantage of this function.the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by

20、this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic ele

21、ments used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those “ Phaticlanguage a,iming to establishing aharm onious and in timate relati on ship among people. Examples in Chin ese :吃了 沒？ in En glish: Good norning. & A nice day, isn't it

22、?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for languagesake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children 's babbles and chanter 's chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even

23、change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use “ book to refer to theexisting object in the real world, and yet may also use“the word book to stand by the conce“book as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLing

24、uists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two:

25、Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world 's languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker 's point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate

26、the sounds. speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer's point of view, i.e. how the sounds areperceived by the hearer.heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air f

27、rom one person to another.physicalproperties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavitythroat.2 the oral cavitymouth.tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, m, n, n voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords

28、.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters anddiacritics, used to represent the pronunciation

29、 of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to

30、 show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air

31、 stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: p, b, t, d, k, g.Fricatives: f, v, s, z, , / 3, h,Affricates: t / ,d3Liquids: l, r.Nasals: m, n, nGlides: w, j.semi-vowels2 place of arti

32、culation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: p, b, m, w.Labiodental: f, vDen tal: 0,Alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, rPalatal: / 3, t / ,d3, j.Velar: k, g, nGlottal: h.Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English

33、 V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: i:, i, e, s , ?, acentral: 3 :, 3 , /back: u:, u, o, o:, a:2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: i:, i, u:, u,Semi-close: e, 3 :Semi-open: 3 , o:Open vowels: ?, a, /,o, a:3 shape of the lips:unrounded: i:, i, e, s , ?,同呼3 :, 3 , /rounded: u:, u, o, o:

34、.4 length of the sound:long vowels: i:, 3 :, u:, o:, a:short vowels: i, e, s , ?,ua, o.3 , /5 monophthong : the individual vowel.above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. ei, ai, oi, i3 , au, eig3htud,ipehtho3ngs,.

35、u3Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world ' s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all c

36、oncerned with the same aspect of languagethe speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguageshow they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can

37、be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear l and dark l:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologicall

38、y speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distin

39、guish two sounds.allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clearl and dark l of the same l, aspirated p and unaspirated p of the same p in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic con

40、trast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. b in bit and p in pit form phonemic contrast. complementary distribution : allophones of t he same phoneme and they don 't distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear l and dark l

41、respectively in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rul

42、es to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically repr

43、esented.5. Suprasegmental Featuresstress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentssyllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, toneand intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence

44、 stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. imimp'ottp(no)rt (v),nre)-c-o-r-dre( ' cord (v) blackbird (compound-) black bird (noncom

45、pound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of-ing forms and nouns. E.g. ' dining room(compound)-sleeping' baby (noncompound)Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts o

46、f speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can

47、distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the convey

48、ance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone,the rising tone, the fall-risetone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tonewhat is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tonemake a question

49、 of what is said.The fall-rise toneindicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words canbe added to it.content words. E.g. beatnik:

50、a member of the Beat generation, or a person whorejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorp

51、hology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemesthe minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme tha

52、t can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix,

53、 which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemes derivational morpheme: Bound

54、morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as nu mber, tense and case. E.g.-ed and -ng endings are in fleet ional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by gram

55、matical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combina

56、tion of two or more words, which functions as a single word the noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category: E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories

57、, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. undertake (v), in 'action (n), up 'lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. redcoat,greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: