英語學(xué)習(xí)《語言學(xué)教程》第四章Fromwordtot課件

1、Chapter FourFrom Word to Text1h第1頁，共90頁。Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.2h第2頁，共90頁。What are the three basic syntactic relations?3h第3

2、頁，共90頁。Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds:relations of positionrelations of substitutabilityrelations of co-occurrence1. Syntactic relations syntactic relations4h第4頁，共90頁。What is positional relation?What are the other names for it?What happens if the word order is changed?5h第5頁，共90

3、頁。1.1 Relations of PositionFor language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object6h第6頁，共90頁。Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arr

4、angement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example,7h第7頁，共90頁。The boy kicked the ball*Boy the ball kicked the*The ball kicked th

5、e boyThe teacher saw the studentsThe students saw the teacher8h第8頁，共90頁。Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations (組合關(guān)系)observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations. 9h第9頁，共90頁。Word order is among the three basi

6、c ways (word order, genetic and areal來自一個地區(qū)的 classifications) to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 10h第10頁，共90頁。What is relations of substitutability? What are the other

7、names?11h第11頁，共90頁。1.2 Relation of Substitutability The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The_ smiles. man boy girl12h第12頁，共90頁。It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be j

8、ointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong manThe tallest boy smiles.pretty girl yesterday.He went therelast week. the day before.13h第13頁，共90頁。This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic聚合 Relations by Hjemslev. To make it more underst

9、andable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. 14h第14頁，共90頁。What is the relation of co-occurrence? Is the relation syntagmatic or paradigmatic?15h第15頁，共90頁。1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a wor

10、d of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase. 16h第16頁，共90頁。Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic rel

11、ations. 17h第17頁，共90頁。2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical Construction Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.an appleate an appleMary ate an apple18h第18頁，共90頁。2.2 Constituents and Phrase StructureConstituen

12、t is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)the girl ate the apple (S)19h第19頁，共90頁。Immediate Constituent直接成分 Analysis(IC Analysis)The girl ate the apple20h第20頁，共90頁。Phrase StructureTree diagram S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe

13、girl ate the apple21h第21頁，共90頁。22h第22頁，共90頁。BracketingBracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit. (The) (girl)(ate)(the) (apple)SNPDet TheN girlVPV ateNPDet theN apple23h第23頁，共90頁。PractiseUse the tree diag

14、ram to analyse the following sentences:The boy was crying. He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.24h第24頁，共90頁。Whats the difference between endocentric and exocentric constructions?What are their respective syntactic constructions?25h第25頁，共90頁。2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions End

15、ocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constit

16、uent items are subordinate to the Head. 26h第26頁，共90頁。27h第27頁，共90頁。Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including

17、the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connective (be + complement) construction.28h第28頁，共90頁。The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can functio

18、n as an adverbial.)He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)29h第29頁，共90頁。two main types of endocentric constructionsWhat are the characteristics of coordinations? What are the chara

19、cteristics of subordinations?What are their respective places in recursiveness of languages?30h第30頁，共90頁。2.4 Coordination and Subordination Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: CoordinationSubordination31h第31頁，共90頁。Coordination Coordinat

20、ion is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constitue

21、nts can stand for the original construction functionally. 32h第32頁，共90頁。Coordination of NPs:NP the lady or NP the tigerCoordination of VPs:VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs: PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs: AP quite expensive and AP very beautifulC

22、oordination of Ss:S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.33h第33頁，共90頁。Subordination Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. The subordinate

23、 constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. 34h第34頁，共90頁。two dogs Head(My brother) can drink (wine). HeadSwimming in the lake (is fun). Head(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. Head35h第35頁，共90頁。Subordinate clausesClauses can be used as subordinate con

24、stituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses: complement clausesadjunct (or adverbial) clausesrelative clauses36h第36頁，共90頁。John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman. (complement clause)Elizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner. (adverbial clause

25、)The woman that I love is moving to the south. (relative clause) subordinate clause37h第37頁，共90頁。What are the basic functional terms in syntax? What is a subject?What is a predicate? What is a predicator?What is an object?38h第38頁，共90頁。3. Syntactic Function The syntactic function shows the relationshi

26、p between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 39h第39頁，共90頁。3.1 Subject In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. T

27、he typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.pater filium amat (the father loves the son)patrum filius amat (the son loves the father) 40h第40頁，共90頁。In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be th

28、e agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. This definition seems to work for these sentences:Mary slapped John. A dog bit Bill. 41h第41頁，共90頁。but is clearly wrong in the following examples:John was bitten by a dog. John underwent major heart s

29、urgery. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “l(fā)ogical subject” (a dog). 42h第42頁，共90頁。Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). Again, this seems to work for many sente

30、nces, such asBill is a very crafty fellow. but fails in others, such as(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I dont trust. As for Bill, I wouldnt take his promises very seriously. 43h第43頁，共90頁。All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.

31、 The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject. What characteristics do subjects have?subject44h第44頁，共90頁。Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement: Sally collects stamps.*Collects Sally stamps.45h第45頁，共90頁。Pro-formsThe first and third p

32、erson pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:He loves me. I love him.We threw stones at them.They threw stones at us. 46h第46頁，共90頁。Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to t

33、he verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. They anger him. She angers them. 47h第47頁，共90頁。Content questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (w

34、ho or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as inJohn stole the Queens picture from the British Council.Who stole the Queens picture from the British council? 48h第48頁，共90頁。What would John steal, if he had the chance?What did John steal from the British Council?Where did John steal the Q

35、ueens picture from?When any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. 49h第49頁，共90頁。Tag questionA tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to

36、 any other element in the sentence. John loves Mary, doesnt he?Mary loves John, doesnt she?*John loves Mary, doesnt she?50h第50頁，共90頁。3.2 Predicate Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were consi

37、dered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.The boy is running. (process)Peter broke the glass. (action)Jane must be mad! (state)The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.51h第51頁，共90頁。3.3 Object Object is also a term

38、hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.Mother bought a doll.Mother gave my sister a doll. IO DO 52h第52頁，共90頁。In some inflect

39、ing languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case for direct object, and the dative case for indirect object.In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns).Mother gave a doll to my sister.Jo

40、hn kicked me.53h第53頁，共90頁。Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter.object54h第54頁，共90頁。Although there are nominal phrases in the followin

41、g, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.He died last week.The match lasted three hours.He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)55h第55頁，共90頁。4. Category The term category refers to the defining properties of these gene

42、ral units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice56h第56頁，共90頁。4.4.1 NumberWhat are the contrasts in number?What constructs can reflect number?57h第57頁，共90頁。4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word clas

43、ses displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.58

44、h第58頁，共90頁。In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.le cheval royal (the royal horse) les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)59h第59頁，共90頁。4.4.2 GenderGender: natural gender & grammatical genderIs there a natrual correlation betwe

45、en natural gender and grammatical gender?What constructs can manifest gender?60h第60頁，共90頁。4.2 GenderSuch contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes. Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assign

46、ment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. For instance, in Latin, ignis fire is masculine, while flamma flame is feminine. 61h第61頁，共90頁。English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.he: she: it prince: princes

47、s author: authoress62h第62頁，共90頁。In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles. beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house)Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)63h第63頁，共90頁。Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as wel

48、l, for example, in French:le poele (the stove)la poele (the frying pan)le pendule (the pendulum) la pendule (the clock)64h第64頁，共90頁。4.4.3 CaseCase: used to indentify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.What are the cases concerned with English nouns?65h第65頁，共90頁。4.3 Case The case

49、category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. There are five cases in ancie

50、nt Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.66h第66頁，共90頁。In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channel

51、s: inflectionfollowing a prepositionword orderas manifested inteacher : teacherswith : to a manJohn kicked Peter : Peter kicked John67h第67頁，共90頁。4.4 AgreementAgreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific s

52、yntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). 68h第68頁，共90頁。This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, Whose is this pen? -Oh, its the one I lost.or it may involve a re

53、lation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:Each person may have one coin. 69h第69頁，共90頁。Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.70h第70頁，共90頁。4.5.1 PhrasePrase is a single element of struct

54、ure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.What are the basic types of phrases in English?Whats the difference between phrase and word group?Can the examples in Ex 4-36 be called word groups?71h第71頁，共90頁。SentenceClausePhraseWord5. Phrase, Clause

55、 and Sentence 72h第72頁，共90頁。the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)has been doing (verbal phrase) extremely difficult(adjectival phrase) to the door (prepositional phrase) very fast (adverbial phrase)phrase73h第73頁，共90頁。ClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitive Participial Gerundial Subject ObjectAdverbialRel

56、ativeAppositionalComplement74h第74頁，共90頁。The best thing would be to leave early.Its great for a man to be free.Having finished their task, they came to help us.John being away, Bill had to do the work.Filled with shame, he left the house.All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.Its no use cr

57、ying over spilt milk. Do you mind my opening the window?75h第75頁，共90頁。Sentence: traditional approachsimple Sentence complexnon-simple compound76h第76頁，共90頁。Sentence: functional approach Yes/no Interrogative Indicative wh- DeclarativeSentence Jussive Imperative Optative 77h第77頁，共90頁。Basic sentence type

58、s: BolingerMother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)Mother is young. (Nominal + copula + complement)Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal) There is time. (There + existential + nominal) 78h第78頁，共90頁。Bas

59、ic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind. a nurse.SVA Mary is here. in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball. SVOC We have proved him wrong. a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table. SVOO She gives me expensive presents. 79h第79頁，共90頁。6. Recursiveness Recursiveness mainly me

60、ans that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. All these are means to extend sentences.