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1、PowerPoint to panyNaresh MalhotraJohn HallMike ShawPeter OppenheimPowerPoint to panyChapter 9Questionnaire Design, Measurement and ScalingChapter ObjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to:Explain the purpose of a questionnaireDescribe the process of designing a questionnaireList th

2、e 10 steps in the questionnaire design processUnderstand the concepts of measurement and scalingDiscuss the primary scales of measurementChapter Objectives (continued)Classify scaling techniques as comparative & parative; describe the comparative techniques of paired comparison, rank order, constant

3、 sum & Q-sort scalingDescribe parative scaling techniques and explain Likert, semantic differential & Stapel scalesUnderstand the decisions involved in constructing an itemised ratingDiscuss the criteria used for scale evaluation & explain how to assess reliability, validity & generalisabilityChapte

4、r OutlineChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesChapter Outline (co

5、ntinued) parative scaling techniques parative itemised rating scale decisionsDeveloping multi-item scalesChoosing a scaling techniqueScales in a cross-cultural settingSummary TopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeas

6、urement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesChallenge of Questionnaire DesignSome principals assist in questionnaire designNo fool-proof way of ensuring an effective questionnaireThere are tra

7、de-offs between:Ideal informationWhat is practical to collectQuestionnaire design is as much art as it is science (Payne)TopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasur

8、ement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesQuestionnaires and Observation FormsStandardise data collection for survey and observation, respectivelyEnsure comparability of the data, increase speed and accuracy of recording and facilitate data pro

9、cessingQuestionnaire DefinitionFormalised set of questions for obtaining information from respondentsSupported byField work procedures select, approach, askRewards/incentivesCommunication aids ads, maps, etcObjectives of a QuestionnaireTranslate the information needed into a set of specific question

10、s that the respondents can and will answerTo uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to e involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interviewQuestionnaires should minimise response errorExchange of ValuesTopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation f

11、ormsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesFigure 9.3 Questionnaire Design ProcessSpecify the Information NeededSpecify information need

12、ed es clearer as project progressesConsider the constructstheory, hypotheses/research question developed earlierKeep in mind the target population and ask questions appropriately tertiary educated may have different levels of understanding compared with migrant groupsthe more diverse the target resp

13、ondents the harder to design the questionnaireType of Interviewing MethodPersonal interviews allow forLengthy, complex and varied questions if they can see the questionnaireTelephone interviewsShort and simple questionsMail questionnaire/self-administeredSimple questions, detailed instructionsIndivi

14、dual Question ContentIs the question necessary?Every question should contribute to the information needed or serve some specific purposequestions to develop rapport, questions which disguise the purpose or sponsorship of the project, questions may be duplicated for the purpose of assessing reliabili

15、ty or validityIndividual Question ContentAre several questions needed instead of one?Double-barrel questionsAre you fit and healthy?Difficulty of asking “Why” questions eg, “Why do you like to shop at K-mart?”Usually involves 2 aspectsProduct attributesInfluences on knowledgeOne question only by eli

16、minating superfluous Yes/No questionsA common mistake“Do you buy cereal?” “Yes” “What brand?” Can be replaced by “What cereal brand do you buy?” If doesnt buy record as such ing Inability to AnswerIs the respondent informed?Filter questions are often used to ascertain familiarity, product use and pa

17、st experienceAre you the main grocery buyer in the household?Have you purchased car tyres in the last three months? ing Inability to Answer Can the respondent remember?Inability to remember can lead to:Errors of omission inability to recallTelescoping shortening the time for eventsCreation remembers

18、 an event that did not occurThe ability to remember events is influenced by:The event itselfTime elapsed since the eventPresence/absence of other events that would help memoryThe use of unaided and aided recall in surveys ing Inability to Answer (continued)Can the respondent articulate? Respondents

19、may be unable to describe the situation accuratelyInability to articulate may lead to:Respondents ignoring questionsRefusing to respond to the rest of the questionnaire ing Unwillingness to AnswerThis can occur because:Effort required of the respondent Unwilling to devote a lot of effort to provide

20、information ContextUnwilling to respond to questions which are considered inappropriate for the given contextLegitimate PurposeUnwilling to divulge information which they do not see as serving a legitimate purposeSensitive informationUnwilling to disclose sensitive information because this may cause

21、 embarrassment or threaten the respondents prestige/self-imageIncreasing the Willingness of RespondentsPlace sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire rapport has been developedPreface the question with a statement that the behaviour of interest is commonAsk the question using 3rd person tech

22、niqueProvide response categories rather than asking for specific figuresUse randomised techniques2 questions 1 sensitive, the other not with known probability of “yes” answer. Respondent answers “yes” or “no” to selected question (not tell which one). Law of probability to determine “yes” to sensiti

23、ve question but researcher does not know who provides such answersChoosing Question Structure Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their own words:Lets respondent express general attitudeInterviewer bias is high skills required to ensure respondents words (meani

24、ng) correctly capturedCoding is costly and time-consumingMay not be appropriate for plete questionnaireBut useful in exploratory research or as opening questionsChoosing Question StructureStructured questionsSpecify the set of response alternatives and the response formatTypes: multiple-choice, dich

25、otomous, or a scaleIn multiple-choice there are issues of:Number of alternatives providedOrder (position) bias tendency to pick an answer simply because it occupies a certain position, eg pick the first, last or central choiceCan e this by using different format in the same questionnaireMultiple-cho

26、ice advantagesMultiple-choice disadvantagesLess interviewer bias, quick to administer, coding/processing less costlyHigh design effort, use of “Other” may not capture all alternatives, list of answers may introduce a biasChoosing Question StructureMultiple-choice questionsRespondents are asked to se

27、lect one or more alternativeWhich of the following people had an influence on your choice of university?NoneParentsFriendsEx-uni studentTeachers at secondary schoolCareers teachers at secondary schoolColleaguesOther - please specifyChoosing Question StructureDichotomous questionsOnly two response al

28、ternativesHave you stayed in Japan? YesNo Sometimes supplemented by “dont know” or “no opinion” etcDo you force them to take a position (2 choices) or give them an out, but lessen data quality?If expected response to “neutral” is small then only provide 2 choicesEasy to code & analyse but wording im

29、portant e this by splitting sample in halfChoosing Question StructureDichotomous questions have a serious problem response can be influenced by wordingThis can be e by randomisation of questions:Frame a question one way in 50% of the questionnairesFrame a question in an opposite way for 50%Choosing

30、Question StructureScale questionsCan be comparative or parativeDo you intend to buy a new computer within the next 6 months? Choosing Question WordingPerhaps the most difficult taskWant to avoid:Refusal to answerIncorrect answersResearcher and respondents must assign same meaning to the questionsGui

31、delines:Define the issueUse ordinary wordsAvoid ambiguous wordsUse dual statements (positive & negative statements)Item non-responseLeads to response errorAvoid implicit alternativesAvoid implicit assumptionsAvoid generalisations & estimatesAvoid leading questionsDefine the IssueDefine the issue by

32、considering6 Ws these are?What brand of shampoo do you use?Issues? who what when where why wayWho? Brand respondent uses or the household?What? More than 1 brand which do you choose?When? Last time? Last week?Where? At home?Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the

33、 past month? In the case of more than one please list all the brands that applyUse Ordinary WordsMatch the vocabulary level of the respondentsAvoid jargon and technical marketing words Avoid Ambiguous WordsThe word should have a single meaning which is known to the respondentsWhat do “usually” or “n

34、ormally” or “regularly” mean?Be more specificOnce a weekTwice a monthAvoid Leading or Biased QuestionsAvoid clues which will lead the respondent to answer in a particular wayAvoid “emotional” terms/phrasesAvoid giving clues about the questionnaire sponsorDo you think patriotic Australians should buy

35、 imported gourmet food when that would put Australians out of work?Avoid Implicit AlternativesAlternatives should be explicitly statedDo you like to fly when travelling short distances?Do you like to fly when travelling short distances, or would you rather drive?Avoid implicit assumptionsImplicit as

36、sumptions about what will happen as a consequenceAre you in favour of increased Government spending to protect the environment?Are you in favour of increased Government spending to protect the environment if it meant an increase in the personal tax rates?Avoid Generalisations and EstimatesRespondent

37、s should not have to make generalisation, only specific questions should be askedThe researcher can simplify by asking 2 questions and computing an answerWhat is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in your household?What is the weekly expenditure on groceries in your household?How many li

38、ve people in your household?Use Dual Statements Positive and NegativeAvoid bias by altering statementsSome are positiveSome are negativeHence, need to use more than 1 format for the questionnaire50% positive50% negativePlus use a second questionnaire with the respective statements reversedDeterminin

39、g the Order of QuestionsOpening QuestionsImportant in gaining confidence and co-operation of respondentsQuestions should be interesting and non-threateningCould be qualifying questionDetermining the Order of QuestionsType of Information gained in a questionnaireCriticalClassificationIdentificationRe

40、lates directly to research questionSocio-economic, demographic factorsName, address etcCritical 1st do not alienate them by asking personal questions up frontDetermining the Order of QuestionsDifficult questionsSensitive, embarrassing, complex or dull questions should be placed late in the sequenceD

41、etermining the Order of QuestionsEffect on subsequent questionQuestions asked early in a sequence can influence the responses to subsequent questionsQ1What considerations are important to you in selecting a supermarket?Q2In selecting a supermarket, how important is convenience of location?A general

42、questionA specific question. With respect to these 2 questions asking Q2 first gives clues to how to answer Q1Determining the Order of Questions Logical orderAll questions that deal with a particular issue/topic should be asked before proceeding to a new topicUse branching questions to direct respon

43、dents to other questionsA flowchart assists with this aspect guidelines are:Questions should be as close to each other as possibleOrder branching questions so as to stop respondents picking an option that does not require more detailed questionsEg list TV commercials rather than specifying the parti

44、cular commercialFigure 9.4 Flowchart for Questionnaire DesignForm and LayoutFormat, spacing and position are important especially for self-administered questionnairesA questionnaire can be divided into several partsAll questions should be numberedQuestionnaires are sometimes pre-coded where each pos

45、sible response to a question is associated with a unique number (or letter)Questionnaire (not mail ones) should be serially numbered as a means of tracking all questionnaires a number may deter some from respondingReproduce the QuestionnaireUse good quality paper and have a professional appearance e

46、asy to readConsider using booklet if the questionnaire runs to several pagesAvoid splitting a question and response categories over two pagesUse single columns for response categoriesAvoid overcrowding questionsDirections or instructions for individual questions should be placed close to the questio

47、ns as possiblePilot Testing (Pre-testing)Testing the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems with: question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question difficulty, instructionUse different interviewers even key researchersUse protocol ana

48、lysis or debriefingRespondent asked to “think aloud” whilst answeringRespondent told questionnaire was a pre-test & asked for views on questions etcPre-testingAfter each significant revision of the questionnaire, another pre-test should be performed with a different sampleResponses obtained should b

49、e coded and analysedProvides clues on whether the questions are appropriate and gives pointers to possible statistical analysisRefer to Table 9.1 (pp. 321-2) for a Questionnaire Design checklistTopic Challenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObs

50、ervational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesObservational FormsEasier to construct than a questionnaire - ignores:Psychological impact of questionsWay questions are askedSp

51、ecify the who, what when, where, why and way of behaviour to be observedOffers consistency, structure, completenessPre-testing should be undertakenTopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary s

52、cales of measurementMeasurement scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesMeasurement and ScalingMeasurementAssigning numbers (symbols) to certain characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rulesNecessary to conduct analysisScaling

53、Creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located very satisfied to very dissatisfiedTopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurement scales versus under

54、lying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesPrimary Scales of MeasurementNominalNumbers as labels onlyNot reflect characteristic possessed by objectCounting only limited statisticsOrdinalRanks reflects extent characteristic possessed but not by how muchIn addition to cou

55、nting, more statistics possiblePercent, mode, chi-square, binomial testsBased on percentiles quartiles, median, rank order correlation & summary statisticsPrimary Scales of MeasurementIntervalNumerically equal distances represent equal values in the characteristic being measuredAllows for comparison

56、 of objectsLocation of zero point is not fixedExpanded statisticsRatioAll properties of prior levelsHas absolute zero pointAll statistical techniques can be appliedAll those for nominal & ordinal plus arithmetic mean, std deviation, product moment correlations and othersTable 9.2 Primary Scales of M

57、easurementScaleBasic CharacteristicsMarketing ExamplesDescriptive StatisticsInferential StatisticsNominalNumbers identify and classify objectsBrand numbers, store types, gender classificationPercentage, modeChi-square, binominal testOrdinalNumbers indicate relative position not magnitudePreference r

58、ankings, market position, social classPercentile, medianRank order correlation, Friedman ANOVAIntervalDifferences between objects can be comparedAttitudes, opinions, index numbersRange, mean, standard deviationCorrelations, t- tests, ANOVA, regression, factor analysisRatioZero point is fixed; ratios

59、 of scale values can be computedAge, e, costs, sales, market shareGeometric mean, harmonic meanCoefficient of variationTopicChallenge of questionnaire designQuestionnaires and observation formsQuestionnaire design processObservational formsMeasurement and scalingPrimary scales of measurementMeasurem

60、ent scales versus underlying scaleComparison of scaling techniquesComparative scaling techniquesMeasurement Scales Versus Underlying ScaleFour primary scales do not exhaust the measurement level categoriesCan construct:A nominal scale that provides partial information on orderAn ordinal scale that p