語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論英文課件：Chapter 6-language and cognition

1、Chapter SixLanguage and CognitionPresented by Quan Lihong11. What is Cognition?Cognition is the way we think. 1）The mental processes, internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions); 2) The mental process of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.22. Psych

2、olinguisticsPsychological linguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language.It is the study of psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.3Language acquisition (L1 / L2)Language comprehensionLanguage productionLanguage disordersLanguage and ThoughtNeurocognitionSix

3、 subjects of research4*2.1 Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition refers to the learning and development of a persons language.First language acquisitionSecond language acquisitionQ: What is the distinction between Acquisition and learning?5Acquisition & LearningAcquisition & LearningAccording to

4、American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.Learning is a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language, usually

5、 through formal instructions. “Second” is used to refer to any language other than the first language. A second language, Krashen argues, is more commonly learnt but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner.E.g. Bilingualism

6、 6According to Rod Ellis, “acquisition” can mean several different things. The goal of SLA is the description and explanation of the learners linguistic or communicative competence.7*2.1 Language Acquisition1) Holophrastic stageLA begins with the acquisition of languages sound patterns.Be sensitive

7、to phonetic distinctions in parents language.One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.82.1 Language Acquisition2) two- word stage usu. Around 18 months after birth9Child utteranceMature speakerPurposeWant cookieI want a cookieRequestMore milkI want some more milkRequestJoe seeI (Joe) see

8、youInformingMy cupThis is my cupWarningMommy chairThis chair belongs to MWarningBig boyI am a big boyBraggingRed carThat car is redNaming10Child utteranceMature speakerPurposeNo sleepI dont want to go to sleepRefusalNot tiredI am not tiredRefusalWhere doll?Where is the doll?QuestionTruck tableThe tr

9、uck is on the tableInformingDaddy runDaddy is runningInformingJoe pushI (Joe) pushed (the cat)InformingGive candyGive me the candyRequest113) Three-word-utterance stageGive doggie paper.Put truck window.Tractor go floor.124) Fluent grammatical conversation stageEmbed one constituent inside another:G

10、ive doggie paper. Give big doggie paper.Use more function words missing function words and inflection in the beginning but having good use (90%) of them by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.All parts of the languages are acquired before the child turns four.132.2 Language comprehensi

11、onHow do we comprehend language? There are two steps in language comprehension: language perception (the recognition of acoustic or visual signals) and lexical comprehension. This involves the retrieval of words from our brains. 142.2 Language comprehensionlanguage perception: We use our information

12、 processing system to deal with acoustic or visual signals. Human information processing system is made up of sensory stores, working memory (short-term memory) and permanent memory (long-term memory). The sensory stores involved in language processing are visual and auditory stores for processing w

13、ritten and oral language respectively. 152.2 Language comprehensionlexical comprehension involves the retrieval of words from our brains. Mental lexicon: It is about the information of the properties of words, which is retrievable when understanding a language. 心理詞庫(kù)It is a dictionary in the brain, w

14、hich contains all the information a person knows about words. 162.2 Language comprehensionHow to retrieve a word from the mental lexicon? E.g. rewritableWe may use morphological rules to decompose it the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit

15、 or word. 17Word lays in the central position in language comprehension because of its extremely important role in transmitting meaning.-Recognition of spoken or printed words. 1) Word recognition181) Word recognition for spoken languageHow listeners hear and understand a sequence of separate units

16、( words) even though the acoustic signal itself ( pronunciation) is continuous is the core question in this sub-field of psycholinguistics. Explanations?19A. Cohort theory: 集群模型Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1990)The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent

17、with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. 激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，適者生存Candle-candie-handle (p. 123) 202.2 Language comprehensionTip-of-tongue phenomenon 唇邊現(xiàn)象 It implies when we want to retrieve a word from mental lexicon, the word needs to be activated. 21 work week activating words w k

18、 activating phonemesinput: work input words22B. Interactive model:Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units, such

19、as morphemes. 自上而下，互動(dòng)模式23C. Race model:Pre-lexical route which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed When word-level information appears to affect a lowe

20、r-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. 雙管齊下，詞路取勝24The implication on second language learningIt means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances.The more frequent a word appears during a language learners learning processes, the more ret

21、rievable it becomes.So the frequency of exposure to lexical items is a determining factor in vocabulary learning. 25Factors involved in word recognition: Frequency effect: A word becomes easily to be activated if the word has its more frequent usage. 頻率效應(yīng)Context effect: We recognize a word more read

22、ily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it. 上下文效應(yīng)26Comprehension of sentencesSentence comprehension is a bottom-up process, which involves the retrieval of lexical items, parsing, and semantic and pragmatic analysis of meanings of the sentence. Parsing: syntactic analysis27*S

23、erial model and parallel model串行模型認(rèn)為理解過(guò)程中的詞匯提取是按某個(gè)次序在詞庫(kù)中逐個(gè)詞項(xiàng)地進(jìn)行的；并行模型認(rèn)為詞匯的知覺(jué)輸入可以同時(shí)激活多個(gè)候選詞，而儲(chǔ)存在心理詞庫(kù)中和輸入共享特征最多的詞最終被選定。28Comprehension of sentencesSerial models:串行模型 The sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a languages grammar. 串行模型認(rèn)為句子理解系統(tǒng)以極高速度持續(xù)而有序地理解語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)法

24、約束條件。它描述了處理器如何根據(jù)有限的句子信息主要是語(yǔ)法信息來(lái)構(gòu)建一個(gè)句子的單個(gè)或多個(gè)表征，然后運(yùn)用相關(guān)的信息對(duì)這些表征來(lái)進(jìn)行解析和評(píng)估。29Parallel model: emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. 30并行模型強(qiáng)

25、調(diào)理解系統(tǒng)對(duì)范圍廣泛的信息都很敏感，包括語(yǔ)法、詞匯、語(yǔ)境信息，對(duì)說(shuō)話者和寫(xiě)作者的知識(shí)以及對(duì)整個(gè)世界的一般知識(shí)。并行模型描述了處理器如何運(yùn)用所有相關(guān)的信息快速地評(píng)估一個(gè)句子的所有可能的理解。31Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Psycholinguists hav

26、e proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. Structural factors in comprehension32Sentence comprehensionMinimal attachment: the “structurally simpler”-structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension.33Garden path s

27、entence1) The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her. (p. 125) Initial analysis: Final analysis: 34 A garden path sentence is a grammatically correct sentence that starts in such a way that the readers most likely interpretation will be incorrect; they are lured into an improper parse

28、 that turns out to be a dead end. Garden path sentences are used in psycholinguistics to illustrate the fact that when they read, human beings may process language one word at a time. Garden path refers to the saying to be led down the garden path, meaning to be misled. 35“對(duì)一個(gè)句子按常規(guī)方式理解，直到句子后面才發(fā)現(xiàn)理解有誤

29、，然后回到分叉點(diǎn)對(duì)輸入的語(yǔ)言重新進(jìn)行處理，采用非常規(guī)的方式才能達(dá)到理解的目的?；▓@小徑句和傳統(tǒng)的歧義句是不一樣的語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象。歧義句是指一個(gè)句子可以有兩種或兩種以上不同理解。2. They are flying planes.3. They fed her dog biscuits.花園小徑句是一種局部歧義?？v觀整個(gè)句子，只能有一種理解。36The complex houses married and single soldiers and their families.Initial analysis: The complicated (buildings? families?) got mar

30、ried to some people.Married and single soldiers as well as their families are housed in the complex.Complex: a group of buildingsHouse: to provide shelter for 37exercise1. The government plans to raise taxes were defeated.2. The author wrote the novel was likely to be a best-seller.383940Garden path

31、 sentencesSentenceInitial likely partial parseFinal parseThe man whistling tunes pianos.The man who is whistling musically does something.The man who is whistling also tunes pianos.The cotton clothing is made of grows in Mississippi.The clothing (made of cotton) is made of some fabricThe cotton that

32、 clothing is made of is grown in Mississippi.The complex houses married and single soldiers and their families.The complicated (buildings? families?) got married to some people.Single soldiers and their families are housed in the complex.The author wrote the novel was likely to be a best-seller.The

33、author wrote(verb) the novel .The author wrote that the novel was likely to be a best-seller.The tomcat curled up on the cushion seemed friendly.The tomcat curled up(past-tense verb) on the cushion.The tomcat which was curled up on the cushion seemed friendly.The government plans to raise taxes were

34、 defeated.The government plans(present-tense verb) to raise taxes.The plans of the government to raise taxes were defeated.Dont drink yourself stupid.Do not drink yourself. You are stupid for having done this.Do not allow yourself to reach a level of drunkenness that would be deemed stupid by onlook

35、ers.41Language comprehension and SLAImplication for reading and listening comprehension:In order to have a better understanding of reading and listening materials, we need to listen and read more.讀得越多，聽(tīng)得越多，理解能力就越好，理解能力越好，就越喜歡多聽(tīng)、多讀，由此形成良性循環(huán)，反之則是惡性循環(huán)。422.3 Language productionWe may distinguish four st

36、ages of production: conceptualization of an idea or a thought to be expressed; formulation of the thought into a linguistic plan; articulation of the plan;the monitoring of ones own speech. 432.3 Language productionSingle word access has been and still is a central topic. Access to wordsthree steps:

37、 1) Conceptualization: deciding what to express 概念化2) Word selection: a competitive process詞匯選擇3) Morpho-phonological encoding: the retrieval of the morphemes corresponding to the selected words.詞匯-語(yǔ)音編碼44Generation of sentencesTwo general steps:1) Conceptual preparation: deciding what to say a globa

38、l plan is needed.2) retrieving words from mental lexicon and at the same time generating syntactic structureTwo distinct sets of processes are involved in generating syntactic structure:Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions for the retrieved words, such as subject, verb, or direct obj

39、ect. 布置任務(wù)/角色扮演Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit/ word 對(duì)號(hào)入座45Written language productionSimilar to spoken language.Orthographic form instead of phonological form.Writers have more time available for conceptual preparation and planning.463.2 CategorizationThe process of classif

40、ying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.For example, colors can be classified into black, white, red, blue, green, yellow, etc. The categorization of sex types: male and female, neutral sex?This mental process of classification is commonly called categor

41、ization, and its products are called categories, or cognitive categories. 47Basic level Superordinate level Animal Horse DogCat Chihuahua German dachshund shepherdSubordinate levelVertical organization483.3 Image SchemaJohnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imaginatio

42、n, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 49An image-schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. 意象圖式是我們?cè)谌粘Ｉ钪挟a(chǎn)生的簡(jiǎn)明的、基本的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)，它建立在具體意象之上，歸納概括了眾多不同物體、狀態(tài)、行為事件的普遍特點(diǎn)，幫助我們理解抽象概念并指導(dǎo)推理，形成對(duì)有形體的想象式理解。

43、 50Lakoff 和Johnson 于1980年在我們賴以生存的隱喻一書(shū)中首次提出“意象圖式（Image Schema）”的概念。后來(lái)，他們于1987年分別基于他們的體驗(yàn)哲學(xué)思想再次詳細(xì)地論述了“意象圖式”這一術(shù)語(yǔ)。他們都認(rèn)為：意象圖式具有體驗(yàn)性、想象性、抽象性、心智性、動(dòng)態(tài)性等特征，并指出它們對(duì)于建構(gòu)范疇、形成概念、分析隱喻、理解意義、進(jìn)行推理等具有不可或缺的重要作用。 51Containment schema For example, it derives from our experience of the human body itself as a container, from

44、our experience of being physically located within bounded locations like rooms, beds, etc., and also of putting objects into containers. The result is an abstract schema which can be represented by a very simple image like the following figure representing an entity within a bounded location. 52*Con

45、tainment schema It involves a physical or metaphorical boundary enclosed area or volume53Center-periphery schema It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core. Examples (English):The structure of an apple An individuals social sphere, with family and fri

46、ends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality 54Cycle schema It involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:A starting point A progression through successive events without backtracking A return to the initial state The schema often has superimpos

47、ed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.55Examples (English)Days Weeks Years Sleeping and waking Breathing Circulation Emotional buildup and release 56End-of-path schema An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a pres

48、cribed path. Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sams home, which is at the end of the path:Sam lives over the hill.57Force schema It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: A

49、 source and target of the force A direction and intensity of the force A path of motion from the source to the target A sequence of causation 58Examples (English): Physical: Wind, GravityStructural elements: force, path, etc.Interaction, directionality, causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversi

50、onRemoval of restraint59Link schemaIt consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them. Entity AEntity B60Examples (English):A child holding her mothers hand Someone plugging a lamp into the wall Kinship “ties”61Part-whole schema It involves physica

51、l or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.Examples (English):Physical: The body and its parts Metaphorical: The family; The caste structure of India 62Path schemaIt involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point

52、, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. 63Examples (English):Physical: Paths; Trajectories Metaphorical: The metaphors, as expressed in the following sentences:Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality. (not physically) You have reached the midpoint of your flight training. Shes

53、 just starting out to make her fortune. Jane was sidetracked (change the topic) in her search for self-understanding.64Scale schemaIt involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, 65Examples:Physical amounts Properties in the number system Economic entities such as supply and

54、demand 66Verticality schemaIt involves “up” and “down” relations.Examples:Standing upright Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub A B 67*3.4 MetaphorGeorge Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. 68Simile & metaphorsimile：a figure o

55、f speech that expresses a resemblance between things of different kinds (usually formed with “l(fā)ike” or “as”) 直喻; 明喻E.g. She eats like a bird. As poor as a church mousemetaphor：traditionally, it is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one is the other. E.g. He i

56、s a tiger. Metaphor is used to achieve some artistic and rhetorical effects, communicating eloquently, expressing some deep emotions, or impressing others with “beautiful” and pleasing words. 69Conceptual Metaphor Theory概念隱喻理論 In cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one concep

57、tual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain.70Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.In

58、cognitive linguistics, metaphor is called conceptual metaphor.71Target domain - what is actually being talked about.Source domain - the domain used as a basis for understanding the target domainArgument is war.Target domain: argumentSource domain: warFormula:Target domainSource domain72Ontological m

59、etaphor實(shí)體隱喻Human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, etc. 73 Ontological metaphors serve various purposes. Take the experience of rising prices for example, which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation. This

60、gives us a way of referring to the experience:INFLATION IS AN ENTITY (see p.149)74Structural Metaphor 結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻 Structural metaphors imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another.75Examples: ARGUMENT IS WAR: Your claims are indefensible.He attacked every weak point in my argument