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1、企業(yè)如何競(jìng)爭(zhēng)?企業(yè)如何賺取高于正常的回報(bào)嗎?什么是需要長期保持卓越的性能呢?一個(gè)日益強(qiáng)大的經(jīng)營策略這些基本問題的答案在于動(dòng)態(tài)能力的概念。這些的技能,程序,例程,組織結(jié)構(gòu)和學(xué)科,使公司建立,聘請(qǐng)和協(xié)調(diào)相關(guān)的無形資產(chǎn),以滿足客戶的需求,并不能輕易被競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手復(fù)制。具有較強(qiáng)的動(dòng)態(tài)能力是企業(yè)強(qiáng)烈的進(jìn)取精神。他們不僅適應(yīng)商業(yè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng),他們也塑造他們通過創(chuàng)新,協(xié)作,學(xué)習(xí)和參與。大衛(wèi)蒂斯是動(dòng)態(tài)能力的角度來看的先驅(qū)。它植根于25年,他的研究,教學(xué)和咨詢。他的思想已經(jīng)在企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略,管理和經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的影響力,創(chuàng)新,技術(shù)管理和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)政策有關(guān)。通過他的顧問和咨詢工作,他也帶來了這些想法,承擔(dān)業(yè)務(wù)和政策,使周圍的世界。本書的核心

2、思想動(dòng)態(tài)能力是最清晰和最簡(jiǎn)潔的語句。蒂斯解釋其成因,應(yīng)用,以及如何他們提供了一個(gè)替代的方法很多傳統(tǒng)的戰(zhàn)略思想,立足于簡(jiǎn)單和過時(shí)的產(chǎn)業(yè)組織和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的基礎(chǔ)的理解。通俗易懂撰寫并發(fā)表了,這將是一個(gè)非常寶貴的工具,為所有那些誰想要理解這一重要的戰(zhàn)略思想的貢獻(xiàn),他們的MBA學(xué)生,學(xué)者,管理人員,或顧問和刺激。StrategicManagementJournal,VOl.18:7,509533(1997)Thedynamiccapabilitiesframeworkanalyzesthesourcesandmethodsofwealthcreationandcapturebyprivateenterpr

3、isefirmsoperatinginenvironmentsofrapidtechnologicalchange.Thecompetitiveadvantageoffirmsisseenasrestingondistinctiveprocesses(waysofcoordinatingandcombining),shapedbythefirms(specific)assetpositions(suchasthefirmsportfolioofdifficult-to-tradeknowledgeassetsandcomplementaryassets),andtheevolutionpath

4、(s)ithasadoptedorinherited.Theimportanceofpathdependenciesisamplifiedwhereconditionsofincreasingreturnsexist.Whetherandhowafirmscompetitiveadvantageiserodeddependsonthestabilityofmarketdemand,andtheeaseofreplicability(expandinginternally)andimitatability(replicationbycompetitors).Ifcorrect,theframew

5、orksuggeststhatprivatewealthcreationinregimesofrapidtechnologicalchangedependsinlargemeasureonhoninginternaltechnological,organizational,andmanagerialprocessesinsidethefirm.Inshort,identifyingnewopportunitiesandorganizingeffectivelyandefficientlytoembracethemaregenerallymorefundamentaltoprivatewealt

6、hcreationthanisstrategizing,ifbystrategizingonemeansengaginginbusinessconductthatkeepscompetitorsoffbalance,raisesrivalscosts,andexcludesnewentrants.(C)1997byJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.戰(zhàn)略管理雜志。18:7,509-533(1997)動(dòng)態(tài)能力框架分析方法的來源和財(cái)富創(chuàng)造和捕捉由私人企業(yè)公司在環(huán)境的技術(shù)快速變化。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的公司被視為擱在獨(dú)特的過程(方法的協(xié)調(diào)和結(jié)合),受到公司的(特定的)資產(chǎn)頭寸(如該公司的投資組合的難以貿(mào)易知識(shí)

7、資產(chǎn)和互補(bǔ)資產(chǎn)),和演化路徑(s)已采取或繼承。路徑依賴的重要性是放大收益遞增的情況存在。是否和怎樣一個(gè)公司的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)是侵蝕取決于市場(chǎng)需求的穩(wěn)定性,易于復(fù)現(xiàn)性(擴(kuò)大內(nèi)部)和imitatability(復(fù)制競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手)。如果正確,框架表明,私人財(cái)富創(chuàng)造在政權(quán)的技術(shù)快速變化很大程度上取決于內(nèi)部技術(shù)、組織、珩磨和管理流程在公司??傊R(shí)別新的機(jī)會(huì)和組織有效和高效地?fù)肀麄兺ǔ8镜乃饺素?cái)富創(chuàng)造比謀略,如果通過策劃一個(gè)意味著從事商業(yè)行為,使對(duì)手失去平衡,提高競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的成本,不包括新進(jìn)入者。(C)1997年由約翰威利父子公司。INTRODUCTIONThefundamentalquestioninthe

8、fieldofstrategicmanagementishowfirmsachieveandsustaincompetitiveadvantage.Weconfrontthisquestionherebydevelopingthedynamiccapabilitiesapproach,whichendeavorstoanalyzethesourcesofwealthcreationandcapturebyfirms.Thedevelopmentofthisframeworkflowsfromarecognitionbytheauthorsthatstrategictheoryisreplete

9、withanalysesoffirm-levelstrategiesforsustainingandsafeguardingextantcompetitiveadvantage,buthasperformedlesswellwithrespecttoassistingintheunderstandingofhowandwhycertainfirmsbuildcompetitiveadvantageinregimesofrapidchange.OurapproachisespeciallyrelevantinaSchumpeterianworldofinnovation-basedcompeti

10、tion,price/performancerivalry,increasingreturns,andthecreativedestructionofexistingcompetences.Theapproachendeavorstoexplainfirm-levelsuccessandfailure.Weareinterestedinbothbuildingabettertheoryoffirmperformance,aswellasinformingmanagerialpractice.Inordertopositionouranalysisinamannerthatdisplayssim

11、ilaritiesanddifferenceswithexistingapproaches,webeginbybrieflyreviewingacceptedframeworksforstrategicmanagement.Weendeavortoexposeimplicitassumptions,andidentifycompetitivecircumstanceswhereeachparadigmmightdisplaysomerelativeadvantageasbothausefuldescriptiveandnormativetheoryofcompetitivestrategy.W

12、hilenumeroustheorieshavebeenadvancedoverthepasttwodecadesaboutthesourcesofcompetitiveadvantage,manyclusteraroundjustafewlooselystructuredframeworksorparadigms.Inthispaperweattempttoidentifythreeexistingparadigmanddescribeaspectsofanemergingnewparadigmsthatwelabeldynamiccapabilities.Thedominantparadi

13、gminthefieldduringthe1980swasthecompetitiveforcesapproachdevelopedbyPorter(1980).Thisapproachrootedinthestructure-conduct-performanceparadigmofindustrialorganization(Mason,1949Bain,1959),emphasizestheactionsafirmcantaketocreatedefensiblepositionsagainstcompetitiveforces.Asecondapproach,referredtoasa

14、strategicconflictapproach(e.g.,Shapiro,1989)iscloselyrelatedtothefirstinitsfocusonproductmarketimperfections,entrydeterrenceandstrategicinteraction.Thestrategicconflictapproachusesthetoolsofgametheoryandthusimplicitlyviewscompetitiveoutcomesasafunctionoftheeffectivenesswithwhichfirmskeeptheirrivalso

15、ffbalancethroughstrategicinvestments,pricingstrategies,signaling,andthecontrolofinformation.Boththecompetitiveforceandthestrategicconflictapproachesappeartosharetheviewthatrentsflowfromprivilegedproductmarketpositions.Anotherdistinctclassofapproachesemphasizesbuildingcompetitiveadvantagethroughcaptu

16、ringentrepreneurialrentsstemmingfromfundamentalfirm-levelefficiencyadvantages.Theseapproacheshavetheirrootsinamucholderdiscussionofcorporatestrengthsandweaknessestheyhavetakenonnewlifeasevidencesuggestthatfirmsbuildenduringadvantagesonlythroughefficiencyandeffectiveness,andasdevelopmentinorganizatio

17、naleconomicsandthestudyontechnologicalandorganizationalchangebecomeappliedtostrategyquestions.Onestrandofthisliterature,oftenreferredtoastheresource-basedperspective,emphasizesfirm-specificcapabilitiesandassetsandtheexistenceofisolatingmechanismsasthefundamentaldeterminantsoffirmperformance(Penrose,

18、1959;Rumelt,19842).Thisperspectiverecognizesbutdoesnotattempttoexplainthenatureoftheisolatingmechanismsthatenableentrepreneurialrentsandcompetitiveadvantagetobesustained.簡(jiǎn)介在戰(zhàn)略管理領(lǐng)域的根本問題是企業(yè)如何獲得和保持競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。我們面對(duì)這個(gè)問題,在這里發(fā)展動(dòng)態(tài)能力的方法,努力創(chuàng)造財(cái)富的來源進(jìn)行分析,并捕獲由企業(yè)。這個(gè)框架的發(fā)展,從戰(zhàn)略理論是由作者充滿維持和維護(hù)現(xiàn)存的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的企業(yè)級(jí)戰(zhàn)略分析確認(rèn),但對(duì)于協(xié)助了解如何以及為什么某些

19、公司的表現(xiàn)稍遜在快速變化的制度,建立競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。在熊彼特創(chuàng)新為基礎(chǔ)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng),價(jià)格/性能的競(jìng)爭(zhēng),報(bào)酬遞增,現(xiàn)有的能力和“創(chuàng)造性破壞”的世界,我們的做法是特別相關(guān)。的方法解釋企業(yè)層面的成功和失敗的努力。我們有興趣在這兩個(gè)建筑企業(yè)績效的一種較好的理論,以及通知管理實(shí)踐。為了定位我們的分析,我們首先簡(jiǎn)要回顧公認(rèn)的框架,戰(zhàn)略管理的方式顯示與現(xiàn)有方法的異同。我們將盡力揭露隱含的假設(shè),并找出有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的情況下,作為一個(gè)有用的描述性和規(guī)范性的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)戰(zhàn)略理論,每個(gè)范式可能顯示一些相對(duì)的優(yōu)勢(shì)。雖然已經(jīng)提出了許多理論在過去二十年的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)來源,許多集群周圍只是一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)松散的框架或范式。在本文中,我們?cè)噲D找出現(xiàn)有三個(gè)范式和描

20、述方面的一門新興的新的范式,我們的標(biāo)簽動(dòng)態(tài)能力。在20世紀(jì)80年代在該領(lǐng)域的主導(dǎo)范式是由波特(1980)接近開發(fā)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。這種做法植根于工業(yè)組織(梅森,1959年,1949年貝恩)的結(jié)構(gòu)-行為-績效范式,強(qiáng)調(diào)企業(yè)可以創(chuàng)建守難攻的位置,對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的行動(dòng)。第二種方法稱為一個(gè)戰(zhàn)略沖突的方法(例如,1989年,夏皮羅)是密切相關(guān)的第一個(gè)專注于產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)的不完善,進(jìn)入威懾和戰(zhàn)略互動(dòng)。戰(zhàn)略沖突的方法是使用博弈論的工具,從而隱含地認(rèn)為,有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的結(jié)果作為一個(gè)功能與企業(yè)保持他們的對(duì)手失去平衡,通過戰(zhàn)略投資,定價(jià)策略,信令和控制信息的有效性。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力和戰(zhàn)略沖突的方法似乎贊同這樣的觀點(diǎn)租金流特權(quán)產(chǎn)品的市場(chǎng)地位。另一個(gè)不

21、同的類的方法,強(qiáng)調(diào)建立競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì),通過捕捉創(chuàng)業(yè)租金源于基本的企業(yè)級(jí)的效率優(yōu)勢(shì)。這些方法都有其根源在舊討論企業(yè)的長處和短處,他們已經(jīng)采取了新的生活的證據(jù)表明,企業(yè)建立持久的優(yōu)勢(shì),只能通過效率和效益,組織經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的發(fā)展和研究的技術(shù)和組織變革成為適用于戰(zhàn)略問題。這種文學(xué)的一個(gè)鏈,通常被稱為“資源為基礎(chǔ)的角度,強(qiáng)調(diào)企業(yè)的具體能力和資產(chǎn)隔離機(jī)制的存在,作為企業(yè)績效的根本決定因素(彭羅斯,1959;羅曼爾特的,19842)。這個(gè)角度認(rèn)識(shí),但并不試圖解釋性質(zhì)的隔離機(jī)制,使企業(yè)家租和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)得以持續(xù)。Anothercomponentoftheefficiency-basedapproachisdevelopedi

22、nthispaper.Rudimentaryeffortsaremadetoidentifythedimensionsoffirm-specificcapabilitiesthatcanbesourcesofadvantage,andtoexplainhowcombinationsofcompetencesandresourcescanbedeveloped,deployed,andprotected.Werefertothisasthedynamiccapabilitiesapproachinordertostressexploitingexistinginternalandexternal

23、firmspecificcompetencestoaddresschangingenvironments.ElementsoftheapproachcanbefoundinSchumpeter(1942),Penrose(1959),NelsonandWinter(1982),PrahaladandHamel(1990),Teece(1976,1986a,1986b,1988)andinHayes,Wheelwright,andClark(1988):Becausethisapproachemphasizesthedevelopmentofmanagementcapabilities,andd

24、ifficult-to-imitatecombinationsoforganizational,functionalandtechnologicalskills,itintegratesanddrawsuponresearchinsuchareasasthemanagementofR&D,productandprocessdevelopment,technologytransfer,intellectualproperty,manufacturing,humanresources,andorganizationallearning.Becausethesefieldsareoftenviewe

25、dasoutsidethetraditionalboundariesofstrategy,muchofthisresearchhasnotbeenincorporatedintoexistingeconomicapproachestostrategyissues.Asaresult,dynamiccapabilitiescanbeseenasanemergingandpotentiallyintegrativeapproachtounderstandingthenewersourcesofcompetitiveadvantage.Wesuggestthatthedynamiccapabilit

26、iesapproachispromisingbothintermsoffutureresearchpotentialandasanaidtomanagementendeavoringtogaincompetitiveadvantageinincreasinglydemandingenvironments.Toillustratetheessentialelementsofthedynamiccapabilitiesapproach,thesectionsthatfollowcompareandcontrastthisapproachtoothermodelsofstrategy.Eachsec

27、tionhighlightsthestrategicinsightsprovidedbyeachapproachaswellasthedifferentcompetitivecircumstancesinwhichitmightbemostappropriate.Needlesstosay,theseapproachesareinmanywayscomplementaryandafullunderstandingoffirm-level,competitiveadvantagerequiresanappreciationofallfourapproachesandmore.本文開發(fā)的效率為基礎(chǔ)

28、的方法的另一個(gè)組成部分。簡(jiǎn)陋的努力都是為了確定企業(yè)特定的能力,可以尺寸的優(yōu)勢(shì)來源,并解釋如何組合的能力和資源可以開發(fā),部署和保護(hù)。我們稱此為“動(dòng)態(tài)能力”的做法,為了強(qiáng)調(diào)利用現(xiàn)有的內(nèi)部和外部公司的具體能力,以應(yīng)對(duì)不斷變化的環(huán)境。元素的方法,可以發(fā)現(xiàn)在熊彼特(1942),彭羅斯(1959),納爾遜和溫特(1982),普拉哈拉德和哈默爾(1990),蒂斯(1976,1986A,1986b,1988)和海耶斯,車匠,和克拉克(1988):因?yàn)檫@種做法強(qiáng)調(diào)了管理能力的發(fā)展,并難以-到-模仿的組織功能和技術(shù)技能的組合,它整合并繪制后,在研發(fā)管理,產(chǎn)品和工藝開發(fā),技術(shù)等領(lǐng)域的研究轉(zhuǎn)讓,知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán),制造,人力資

29、源,組織學(xué)習(xí)。因?yàn)檫@些領(lǐng)域往往被視為傳統(tǒng)的戰(zhàn)略邊界外,本研究還沒有被納入到現(xiàn)有的經(jīng)濟(jì)戰(zhàn)略問題的方法。因此,動(dòng)態(tài)能力,可以被看作是一個(gè)新興市場(chǎng)和潛在的綜合性的方法來理解新的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)來源。我們認(rèn)為,動(dòng)態(tài)能力的方法是看好雙方未來的研究潛力和管理,努力在日益苛刻的環(huán)境中獲得競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的援助。為了說明動(dòng)態(tài)能力方法的基本要素,下面的章節(jié)中比較和對(duì)比其他車型戰(zhàn)略方針。每節(jié)突出了每種方法,以及不同的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)環(huán)境下,它可能是最合適的戰(zhàn)略洞察力。不用說,這些方法在許多方面互補(bǔ)性和充分的了解企業(yè)層面,競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì),需要所有四個(gè)方法和更多的升值。MODELSOFSTRATEGYEMPHASIZINGTHEEXPLOITATIO

30、NOFMARKETPOWERCompetitiveforcesThedominantparadigminstrategyatleastduringthe1980swasthecompetitiveforcesapproach.PioneeredbyPorter(1980),thecompetitiveforcesapproachviewstheessenceofcompetitivestrategyformulationasrelatingacompanytoitsenvironment.Thekeyaspectofthefirmsenvironmentistheindustryorindus

31、triesinwhichitcompetes.Industrystructurestronglyinfluencesthecompetitiverulesofthegameaswellasthestrategiespotentiallyavailabletofirms.Inthecompetitiveforcesmodel,fiveindustry-levelforcesentrybarriers,threatofsubstitution,bargainingpowerofbuyers,bargainingpowerofsuppliers,andrivalryamongindustryincu

32、mbentsdeterminetheinherentprofitpotentialofanindustryorsub-segmentofanindustry.Theapproachcanbeusedtohelpthefirmfindapositioninanindustryfromwhichitcanbestdefenditselfagainstcompetitiveforcesorinfluencetheminitsfavor(Porter,1980:4).Thisfive-forcesframeworkprovidesasystematicwayofthinkingabouthowcomp

33、etitiveforcesworkattheindustrylevelandhowtheseforcesdeterminetheprofitabilityofdifferentindustriesandindustrysegments.Thecompetitiveforcesframeworkalsocontainsanumberofunderlyingassumptionsaboutthesourcesofcompetitionandthenatureofthestrategyprocess.Tofacilitatecomparisonswithotherapproaches,wehighl

34、ightseveraldistinctivecharacteristicsoftheframework.Economicrentsinthecompetitiveforcesframeworkaremonopolyrents(Teece,1984).Firmsinanindustryearnrentswhentheyaresomehowabletoimpedethecompetitiveforces(ineitherfactormarketsorproductmarkets)whichtendtodriveeconomicreturnstozero.Availablestrategiesare

35、describedinPorter(1980).Competitivestrategiesareoftenaimedatalteringthefirmspositionintheindustryvis-a-viscompetitorsandsuppliers.Industrystructureplaysacentralroleindeterminingandlimitingstrategicaction.Someindustriesorsubsectorsofindustriesbecomemoreattractivebecausetheyhavestructuralimpedimentsto

36、competitiveforces(e,g:entrybarriers)thatallowfirmsbetteropportunitiesforcreatingsustainablecompetitiveadvantages.Rentsarecreatedlargelyattheindustryorsubsectorlevelratherthanatthefirmlevel.Whilethereissomerecognitiongiventofirm-specificassets,differencesamongfirmsrelateprimarilytoscale.Thisapproacht

37、ostrategyreflectsitsincubationinsidethefieldofindustrialorganizationandinparticulartheindustrialstructureschoolofMasonandBain(Teece,1984).模型開發(fā)的戰(zhàn)略強(qiáng)調(diào)市場(chǎng)力量競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力在戰(zhàn)略上,至少在上世紀(jì)80年代的主導(dǎo)范式是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的方法。波特(1980),首創(chuàng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的方法看待一家公司有關(guān)其環(huán)境制定競(jìng)爭(zhēng)戰(zhàn)略的精髓T他公司的環(huán)境的關(guān)鍵環(huán)節(jié)是它競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的行業(yè)或產(chǎn)業(yè)。產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)強(qiáng)烈地影響著競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的游戲規(guī)則,以及可能提供給企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略。在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力模型,五個(gè)行業(yè)級(jí)部隊(duì)進(jìn)入壁壘,替代威脅,買方議

38、價(jià)能力,供應(yīng)商的議價(jià)能力,行業(yè)之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)現(xiàn)任確定一個(gè)行業(yè)或一個(gè)行業(yè)的細(xì)分市場(chǎng)固有的潛在利潤。該方法可以用來幫助公司在一個(gè)行業(yè)中找到一個(gè)位置,它最能捍衛(wèi)本身對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力影響他們對(duì)其有利(波特,1980:4)。這“五力”框架提供了一個(gè)系統(tǒng)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力如何,在行業(yè)層面的工作,這些力量如何確定不同行業(yè)和細(xì)分行業(yè)的盈利能力的思考方式。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力框架還包含了一些競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的來源和性質(zhì)的戰(zhàn)略過程中的基本假設(shè)。為了便于與其他方法比較,我們強(qiáng)調(diào)幾個(gè)特色鮮明的框架。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力框架中的經(jīng)濟(jì)租金的壟斷租金(蒂斯,1984)。在一個(gè)行業(yè)的企業(yè)賺取租金時(shí),他們已經(jīng)在某種程度上能夠阻礙競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力(無論是要素市場(chǎng)或產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng))傾向于推動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)回報(bào)為零。波

39、特(1980年)中描述可用的策略。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)策略往往是為了改變公司的面對(duì)面的人在行業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手和供應(yīng)商的地位。工業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)中起著核心的作用,在確定和限制戰(zhàn)略行動(dòng)。一些行業(yè)或子行業(yè)變得更加“有吸引力”因?yàn)樗麄冇懈?jìng)爭(zhēng)力(E,G:準(zhǔn)入門檻),建立可持續(xù)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì),使企業(yè)更好的發(fā)展機(jī)會(huì)的結(jié)構(gòu)性障礙。租金主要是在行業(yè)或界別分組的水平,而不是在企業(yè)層面建立。雖然有一些公司特定資產(chǎn)的識(shí)別,企業(yè)之間的差異主要涉及規(guī)模。這種策略的方法來反映其孵化產(chǎn)業(yè)組織領(lǐng)域內(nèi),特別是產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)學(xué)校梅森和貝恩(蒂斯,1984)。StrategicconflictThepublicationofCarlShapiros1989article,c

40、onfidentlytitledTheTheoryofBusinessStrategy,announcedtheemergenceofanewapproachtobusinessstrategy,ifnotstrategicmanagement.Thisapproachutilizesthetoolsofgametheorytoanalyzethenatureofcompetitiveinteractionbetweenrivalfirms.Themainthrustofworkinthistraditionistorevealhowafirmcaninfluencethebehavioran

41、dactionsofrivalfirmsandthusthemarketenvironment.Examplesofsuchmovesareinvestmentincapacity(Dixit,1980),R&D(GilbertandNewberry,1982),andadvertising(Schmalensee,1983).Tobeeffective,thesestrategicmovesrequireirreversiblecommitments.Themovesinquestionwillhavenoeffectiftheycanbecostlesslyundone.Akeyideai

42、sthatbymanipulatingthemarketenvironment,afirmmaybeabletoincreaseitsprofits.Thisliterature,togetherwiththecontestabilityliterature(Baumol,Panzar,andWillig,1982),hasledtoagreaterappreciationoftheroleofsunkcosts,asopposedtofixedcosts,indeterminingcompetitiveoutcomes.Strategicmovescanalsobedesignedtoinf

43、luencerivalsbehaviorthroughsignaling.Strategicsignalinghasbeenexaminedinanumberofcontexts,includingpredatorypricing(KrepsandWilson,1982a,1982b)andlimitpricing(MilgromandRoberts,1982a,1982b).Morerecenttreatmentshaveemphasizedtheroleofcommitmentandreputation(e.g.,Ghemawat,1991)andthebenefitsoffirmssim

44、ultaneouslypursuingcompetitionandcooperation(BrandenburgerandNalebuff,1995,1996).戰(zhàn)略沖突公布1989年卡爾夏皮羅的文章,自信題為“企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略理論,”宣布的經(jīng)營策略出現(xiàn)了一種新的方法,如果沒有戰(zhàn)略管理。這種方法利用博弈論分析工具的性質(zhì),有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的對(duì)手公司之間的互動(dòng)。在這一傳統(tǒng)中工作的主旨在于揭示企業(yè)如何影響對(duì)手企業(yè)的行為和動(dòng)作,因而市場(chǎng)環(huán)境。這些舉措的例子是投資的能力(迪克西特1980),R&D(吉爾伯特和紐貝里,1982年),廣告(施馬蘭西,1983)。是有效的,這些戰(zhàn)略舉措,需要不可逆轉(zhuǎn)的承諾。移動(dòng)不會(huì)有任何影響

45、,如果他們可以無成本地撤消。一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的想法是,通過操縱的市場(chǎng)環(huán)境,公司或許能夠增加其利潤。這種文學(xué)與的可爭(zhēng)議文學(xué)(1982)鮑莫爾,帕恩查和威利格,導(dǎo)致更大的升值沉沒成本,而不是固定的成本,決定競(jìng)爭(zhēng)結(jié)果的作用。戰(zhàn)略舉措,也可以通過信令來影響對(duì)手的行為。戰(zhàn)略信號(hào)已檢查在一些情況下,包括掠奪性定價(jià)(克瑞普斯和威爾遜,1982年,1982b),限制定價(jià)(米爾格羅姆和羅伯茨,1982a,1982b)。最近的治療強(qiáng)調(diào)承諾和信譽(yù)的作用(例如,格瑪沃特,1991),同時(shí)追求競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的合作(勃蘭登堡和納爾巴夫的,1995年,1996年)的企業(yè)的好處。Inmanyinstances,gametheoryformal

46、izeslong-standingintuitiveargumentsaboutvarioustypesofbusinessbehavior(e.g.,predatorypricing,patentraces),thoughinsomeinstancesithasinducedasubstantialchangeintheconventionalwisdom.Butbyrationalizingobservedbehaviorbyreferencetosuitablydesignedgames,inexplainingeverythingthesemodelsalsoexplainnothin

47、g,astheydonotgeneratetestablepredictions(Sutton,1992).Manyspecificgame-theoreticmodelsadmitmultipleequilibrium,andawiderangeofchoiceexistsastothedesignoftheappropriategameformtobeused.Unfortunately,theresultsoftendependontheprecisespecificationchosen.Theequilibriuminmodelsofstrategicbehaviorcruciall

48、ydependsonwhatonerivalbelievesanotherrivalwilldoinaparticularsituation.Thusthequalitativefeaturesoftheresultsmaydependonthewaypricecompetitionismodeled(e.g.,BertrandorCournot)oronthepresenceorabsenceofstrategicasymmetriessuchasfirst-moveradvantages.Theanalysisofstrategicmovesusinggametheorycanbethou

49、ghtofasdynamicinthesensethatmultiperiodanalysescanbepursuedbothintuitivelyandformally.However,weusethetermdynamicinthispaperinadifferentsense,referringtosituationswherethereisrapidchangeintechnologyandmarketforces,andfeedbackeffectsonfirms.博弈論在許多情況下,正式長期直觀的各種類型的商業(yè)行為(如掠奪性定價(jià),專利競(jìng)賽)的爭(zhēng)論,雖然在某些情況下,它引發(fā)了實(shí)質(zhì)性的

50、變化,在傳統(tǒng)的智慧。但通過觀察到的行為合理化的參考設(shè)計(jì)合適的游戲,解釋一切,這些模型也可以解釋什么,因?yàn)樗麄儾划a(chǎn)生可檢驗(yàn)的預(yù)測(cè)(薩頓,1992年)。許多具體的博弈論模型的多個(gè)平衡承認(rèn),存在廣泛的選擇,要使用的適當(dāng)?shù)挠螒虻男问皆O(shè)計(jì)。不幸的是,其結(jié)果通常依賴于所選擇的精確規(guī)格。戰(zhàn)略行為模型的平衡,關(guān)鍵取決于一個(gè)對(duì)手,相信另一個(gè)對(duì)手將在特定情況下做什么。因此,定性特征的結(jié)果可能依賴于價(jià)格競(jìng)爭(zhēng)方式是仿照(如伯特蘭或古諾),或如先發(fā)優(yōu)勢(shì)的戰(zhàn)略不對(duì)稱的存在或不存在。運(yùn)用博弈論分析的戰(zhàn)略舉措,可以被認(rèn)為是在這個(gè)意義上,可以追求多期分析直觀正式為“動(dòng)態(tài)”。然而,我們?cè)诒疚脑诓煌囊饬x上使用的術(shù)語“動(dòng)態(tài)”,指的

51、是快速變化的技術(shù)和市場(chǎng)的力量,和“反饋”對(duì)企業(yè)的影響情況。Wehaveaparticularviewofthecontextsinwhichthestrategicconflictliteratureisrelevanttostrategicmanagement.Firmsthathaveatremendouscostorothercompetitiveadvantagevis-a-vistheirrivalsoughtnotbetransfixedbythemovesandcountermovesoftheirrivals.Theircompetitivefortuneswillswingm

52、oreontotaldemandconditions,notonhowcompetitorsdeployandredeploytheircompetitiveassets.Putdifferently,whentherearegrossasymmetriesincompetitiveadvantagebetweenfirms,theresultsofgame-theoreticanalysisarelikelytobeobviousanduninteresting.Thestrongercompetitorwillgenerallyadvance,evenifdisadvantagedbyce

53、rtaininformationasymmetries.Tobesure,incumbentfirmscanbeundonebynewentrantswithadramaticcostadvantage,butnogamingwilloverturnthatoutcome.Ontheotherhand,iffirmscompetitivepositionsaremoredelicatelybalanced,aswithCokeandPepsi,andUnitedAirlinesandAmericanAirlines,thenstrategicconflictisofinteresttocomp

54、etitiveoutcomes.Needlesstosay,therearemanysuchcircumstances,buttheyarerareinindustrieswherethereisrapidtechnologicalchangeandfast-shiftingmarketcircumstances.我們有上下文的戰(zhàn)略沖突文學(xué)是有關(guān)戰(zhàn)略管理的特定視圖。企業(yè)有一個(gè)巨大的成本或其他競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì),他們的對(duì)手面對(duì)面的人不應(yīng)該被他們的對(duì)手的招式和對(duì)策研究呆若木雞。他們的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)命運(yùn)擺幅會(huì)總需求的情況下,而不是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手如何部署和重新部署自己的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)資產(chǎn)。換句話說,當(dāng)有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的優(yōu)勢(shì)企業(yè)之間的嚴(yán)重不對(duì)稱,

55、博弈論分析的結(jié)果可能是明顯的和無趣的。更強(qiáng)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者通常會(huì)提前,即使通過一定的信息不對(duì)稱的弱勢(shì)。可以肯定的是,現(xiàn)任公司可以撤消一個(gè)戲劇性的成本優(yōu)勢(shì)的新進(jìn)入者,但沒有游戲?qū)⑼品@一結(jié)果。另一方面,如果企業(yè)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)地位更微妙的平衡,與可口可樂和百事可樂,美國聯(lián)合航空公司和美國航空公司,戰(zhàn)略沖突是利益競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的結(jié)果。不用說,有很多這樣的情況,但他們?cè)诠I(yè)部門,那里是快速的技術(shù)變革和快速變化的市場(chǎng)情況是罕見的。Inshort,wherecompetitorsdonothavedeep-seatedcompetitiveadvantages,themovesandcountermovesofcompetitor

56、scanoftenbeusefullyformulatedingame-theoreticterms.However,wedoubtthatgametheorycancomprehensivelyilluminatehowChryslershouldcompeteagainstToyotaandHonda,orhowUnitedAirlinescanbestrespondtoSouthwestAirlinessinceSouthwestsadvantageisbuiltonorganizationalattributeswhichUnitedcannotreadilyreplicate.Ind

57、eed,theentrepreneurialsideofstrategyhowsignificantnewrentstreamsarecreatedandprotectedislargelyignoredbythegame-theoreticapproach.Accordingly,wefindthattheapproach,whileimportant,ismostrelevantwhencompetitorsarecloselymatchedandthepopulationofrelevantcompetitorsandtheidentityoftheirstrategicalternat

58、ivescanbereadilyascertained.Nevertheless,coupledwithotherapproachesitcansometimesyieldpowerfulinsights.However,thisresearchhasanorientationthatweareconcernedaboutintermsoftheimplicitframingofstrategicissues.Rents,fromagame-theoreticperspective,areultimatelyaresultofmanagersintellectualabilitytoplayt

59、hegame.Theadageofthestrategiststeepedinthisapproachisdountoothersbeforetheydountoyou.WeworrythatfascinationwithstrategicmovesandMachiavelliantrickswilldistractmanagersfromseekingtobuildmoreenduringsourcesofcompetitiveadvantage.Theapproachunfortunatelyignorescompetitionasaprocessinvolvingthedevelopme

60、nt,accumulation,combination,andprotectionofuniqueskillsandcapabilities.Sincestrategicinteractionsarewhatreceivefocalattention,theimpressiononemightreceivefromthisliteratureisthatsuccessinthemarketplaceistheresultofsophisticatedplaysandcounter-plays,whenthisisgenerallynotthecaseatall.Inwhatfollows,we

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