自考-現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對(duì)大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業(yè)專心-專注-專業(yè)精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業(yè)第一章 緒論 1/ What is linguistics? 什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)？ Linguisticsis generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics 語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇 The study of language as a

2、 whole is often calledgeneral linguistics. (普通語(yǔ)言學(xué))The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is calledphonetics. （語(yǔ)音學(xué)）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is calledphonology. （音系學(xué)）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words a

3、re calledmorphology. （形態(tài)學(xué)）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax. （句法學(xué)）The study of meaning in language is calledsemantics. （語(yǔ)義學(xué)）The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. （語(yǔ)用學(xué)）The study of language with reference to society is calledsoci

4、o-linguistics. （社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known asapplied linguistics. （應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application

5、 of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches includeanthropological linguistics, （人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)）neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)）andcomputational linguistics. （計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）

6、 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本概念 Prescriptive and descriptive描寫與規(guī)定If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it

7、is said to beprescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic共時(shí)和歷時(shí)T

8、he description of a language at some point in time is asynchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ)Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Mode

9、rn linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.Reasons: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carr

10、ies a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole prul 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ) The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20thcentury. Languerefers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, andparolerefers to the

11、realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of

12、study of linguistics. 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Competence and performanceProposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. He definescompetenceas the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, andperformancethe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task

13、 of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. 4/ What is language? 語(yǔ)言的定義 Languageis a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human instituti

14、on.Chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view. 5/ Design features 語(yǔ)言的甄別性特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language th

15、at distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. 1) Arbitrariness任意性（和約定俗成性）It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and

16、 the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as

17、the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity 能產(chǎn)性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and i

18、nterpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before. 3) Duality結(jié)構(gòu)二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher lev

19、el. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4) Displacem

20、ent語(yǔ)言的移位性（突破時(shí)空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to r

21、efer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission文化傳播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. *Chapter 2 Phonology 音系學(xué) 1.The phon

22、ic medium of language語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech

23、when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介) . The individual sounds within this ran

24、ge are the speech sounds （語(yǔ)音）. 2What is phonetics? 什么是語(yǔ)音學(xué)？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究的對(duì)象是語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介，即人類語(yǔ)言中使用的全部語(yǔ)音。 three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics （發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）, it studies t

25、he speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics （聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)），it studies

26、 the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. aio3.Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官 The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose 語(yǔ)音解剖圖發(fā)音器官圖4.Orthog

27、raphic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions 語(yǔ)音的書寫形式寬式和窄式音標(biāo) IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet國(guó)際音標(biāo)There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符號(hào)) only, called broad transcription (寬式音標(biāo)). The other is the transcription wit

28、h letter-symbols together with the diacritics (變音符號(hào)), called narrow transcription (窄式音標(biāo)). p音的比較對(duì)pit/spit中p音的比較：pit中的p是送氣音，在窄式音標(biāo)中標(biāo)為上標(biāo)，寫作：phitspit中的p是不送氣音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：spit l音的比較對(duì)leaf/feel/build/health中l(wèi)音的比較：Leaf中l(wèi) 在元音前，叫清晰音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：li:fFeel中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在單詞結(jié)尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號(hào)Build中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在另一個(gè)輔音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)

29、中也加變音符號(hào)Health中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在齒音前，受其影響叫齒音l，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號(hào)II 5.Classification of English speech sounds 英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類ConsonantsVowelsa)Classification of English consonants按發(fā)音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k gFricative 擦音：f v s z W T s V hAffricate 塞擦音：tFdVLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n NGlide滑音：w ja)Classification of English

30、 consonants按發(fā)音部位分Bilabial雙唇音：p b m wLabiodental唇齒音：f vDental齒音：W TAlveolar齒齦音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：VtFdViVelar軟腭音：k g NGlottal聲門音：h B) Classification of English vowels 按舌頭在口中的位置分： Front vowel前元音：i: i e A aCentral vowel中元音：: QBack vowel后元音：u: u R: R a: B) Classification of English vowels按口形的大小分：Cl

31、ose vowel閉元音：i: i u: uSemi-close vowel半閉元音：e :Open vowel開元音：A aSemi-open vowel半開元音： R: Q R a: B) Classification of English vowels按唇形是否為圓分Unrounded vowel不圓唇元音：i: i e A a : Q a:rounded vowel圓唇元音：u: u R: R B) Classification of English vowels按語(yǔ)音的長(zhǎng)短分Long vowel長(zhǎng)元音i: :a: u: R:Short vowel短元音i e A a Q u R6.P

32、honology音系學(xué) Phonology and phonetics音系學(xué)和語(yǔ)音學(xué) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover

33、how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies. 7.Phone, phoneme, and allophone 語(yǔ)音（音素）、音位、音位變體 PhonePhone can be simply defined as the speech sou

34、nds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.語(yǔ)音是語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究的單位，是一個(gè)個(gè)具體的聲音。語(yǔ)音是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或一個(gè)切分成分，它并不一定能區(qū)分意義。 PhonologyPhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme,

35、it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念，每一個(gè)音位是一組語(yǔ)音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。一個(gè)音位在語(yǔ)音上被具體體現(xiàn)為一個(gè)特定的語(yǔ)音（音素）。按照慣例，音位被置于兩斜線之間，如/p/ /t/，而語(yǔ)音被置于方括號(hào)內(nèi)，如p t. allophonesThe different phones whic

36、h can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位變體是一個(gè)音位在特定的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境里的具體體現(xiàn)，同一個(gè)音位在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語(yǔ)音。 8.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位對(duì)立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對(duì)立對(duì) Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They

37、 might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.相似的語(yǔ)音之間可能有兩種關(guān)系。兩個(gè)相似的語(yǔ)音如果是兩個(gè)區(qū)別性音位，它們?cè)谝饬x上形成對(duì)立，如果是同一音位的變體，在意思上不形成對(duì)立。 phonemic contrastThe former（ they are two distinctive phonemes ） is called phonemic cont

38、rast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.音位對(duì)立是指不同音位之間的關(guān)系，它們可以出現(xiàn)在不同的語(yǔ)音組合的同一位置，產(chǎn)生意義差別，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。 complementary distributionThe latter（ they do not form a contrast in meaning ） is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme.

39、 They only occur in different environments.互補(bǔ)分布是指音位變體之間的關(guān)系，同一個(gè)音位的不同變體在語(yǔ)音組合中永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的位置上，它們沒有區(qū)別意義的作用，如top中的送氣的p和stop中不送氣的p。 The wayA basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then r

40、epresent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.確定一種語(yǔ)言的音位的一個(gè)基本途徑是，看如果用一個(gè)語(yǔ)音代替另一個(gè)是否會(huì)產(chǎn)生不同的意義。如果產(chǎn)生了，那么這兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音就代表不同的音位。為此，一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的辦法就是找出最小對(duì)立對(duì)。 a minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the s

41、trings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.最小對(duì)立對(duì)是指除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個(gè)音之外其余都相同的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合，如pen和ben。 9.Some rules in phonology 幾條音系規(guī)則 A) sequential rules系列規(guī)則The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.在一種特定的語(yǔ)言中，語(yǔ)音的組合是受規(guī)則制約的，這些規(guī)則叫做系列規(guī)則。 重要的規(guī)則：I.

42、 如果單詞以l 或r 為首，其后的一個(gè)語(yǔ)音必定為元音，如rude, last, leapII. 如果三個(gè)輔音同時(shí)出現(xiàn)在單詞詞首，則：第一音位必定為/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict, splendid, springIII. 塞擦音tdv和咝音s z F V 后不能緊跟另一個(gè)咝音，如teach變復(fù)數(shù)為teachesti:tiz。IV.制約音位模式的規(guī)則是隨語(yǔ)言的不同而不同的，英語(yǔ)中適用，其它語(yǔ)言卻不適用。 B)assimilation rules同化規(guī)則The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to

43、another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.同化規(guī)則即通過“模仿”一個(gè)系列音位的一個(gè)特征使一個(gè)語(yǔ)音與另一個(gè)語(yǔ)音相似，從而使兩個(gè)音素變得相似。 重要的規(guī)則：I. 元音后緊跟一個(gè)鼻音時(shí)，該元音要鼻音話。如bean/ green 中的i:音。II.在一個(gè)單詞中，鼻音n所處的發(fā)音部位和緊隨其后的輔音的發(fā)音部位變得一樣。如correct incorrect。III.語(yǔ)音同化規(guī)則也體現(xiàn)在有關(guān)單詞的拼寫中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因?yàn)閚音同化

44、成了m音。 C)deletion rules省略規(guī)則The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.省略規(guī)則告訴我們什么時(shí)候一個(gè)語(yǔ)音盡管在拼寫中存在，但在發(fā)音中卻省略了。 重要的規(guī)則：如g音出現(xiàn)在位于詞尾的一個(gè)鼻輔音前時(shí)要省略。如sign中的g音不發(fā)音。而在加了后綴的signature中，g卻要發(fā)音的。 10.Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、聲調(diào)和語(yǔ)調(diào) Distinctive

45、 features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.區(qū)別性特征也可以在由兩個(gè)或多個(gè)音位切分成分所組成的系列中體現(xiàn)出來。出現(xiàn)在切分層面之上的

46、音系特征叫做超切分特征。它們時(shí)音節(jié)、單詞和句子等語(yǔ)言單位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音調(diào)和語(yǔ)調(diào)。 A) Stress 重音 重要的規(guī)則：I. 一個(gè)單詞如果既可以作名詞，又可以作動(dòng)詞，則名詞重音在第一個(gè)音節(jié)上，相應(yīng)的動(dòng)詞重音則在第二個(gè)音節(jié)上。如import。II. 英語(yǔ)復(fù)合詞的重音常在第一個(gè)成分上，第二個(gè)成分是次重音。如hotdog。 B) Tone 聲調(diào) 漢語(yǔ)的聲調(diào)C) Intonation語(yǔ)調(diào)When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,

47、they are collectively known as intonation.當(dāng)音高、重音和音長(zhǎng)依附于一個(gè)句子而不是單個(gè)單詞時(shí)，這些音素合起來叫做語(yǔ)調(diào)。English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.英語(yǔ)中有四種基本語(yǔ)調(diào)：降調(diào)、升調(diào)、降升調(diào)、升降調(diào)。最常用的是前三種。 *Chapter 3 Morphol

48、ogy形態(tài)學(xué)What is Morphology?Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形態(tài)學(xué)是語(yǔ)法的一個(gè)分支，研究詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和構(gòu)詞規(guī)則。 two sub-branchesMorphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The

49、 former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形態(tài)學(xué)可分為兩個(gè)分支科學(xué)：屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯或派生形態(tài)學(xué)。前者研究詞的屈折變化，后者研究詞的構(gòu)成。 1.Morpheme語(yǔ)素The smallest meaningful unit of language語(yǔ)言最小的意義單位。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.語(yǔ)素表達(dá)的意義有兩種：詞匯意義和語(yǔ)法意義。

50、2.Types of morphemes語(yǔ)素的分類 FreeBounda) Free morphemes自由語(yǔ)素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.自由語(yǔ)素是獨(dú)立的意義單位，能夠獨(dú)自自由使用，當(dāng)然也可以和其它語(yǔ)素結(jié)合使用。b) Bound morphemes黏著語(yǔ)素Bound morphemes are the morphemes

51、 which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.黏著語(yǔ)素是那些不能單獨(dú)使用，而必須和其它語(yǔ)素自由語(yǔ)素或黏著語(yǔ)素結(jié)合在一起以形成一個(gè)單詞的語(yǔ)素。3.Types of bound morphemes黏著語(yǔ)素的分類Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 詞根和詞綴。RootA root is often seen as part of word;

52、it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.詞根被看作是詞的一部分，它有清楚、明確的意思，但不能單獨(dú)存在，它必須和另一個(gè)詞根或詞綴組合構(gòu)成單詞。 AffixesAffixes are of two types:1. inflectional2.derivational 屈折詞綴和派生詞綴Inflectional affixesInflectional affixes

53、or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. 屈折詞綴或屈折語(yǔ)素表明各種不同的語(yǔ)法關(guān)系或語(yǔ)法范疇，如：數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級(jí)和格。The English inflectional affixes-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present

54、tense 表示現(xiàn)在時(shí)的第三人稱單數(shù)-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示過去時(shí)-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示進(jìn)行時(shí)-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級(jí)-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容詞和副詞最高級(jí)-s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名詞的所有格D

55、erivational affixesDerivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational

56、affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生詞綴加在一個(gè)原有的單詞上以構(gòu)成一個(gè)新詞。這是英語(yǔ)中的一個(gè)很常見的構(gòu)成新詞的方式，這樣的方式叫派生法，用派生法構(gòu)成的新詞叫派生詞。能夠加上一個(gè)派生詞綴的原有語(yǔ)素叫做詞干。詞干可以是一個(gè)黏著詞根、自由語(yǔ)素或者本身就是一個(gè)派生詞。 ExampleTolerate 詞根toler- 詞綴-ateQuickly 自由語(yǔ)素quick 詞綴-lyCarelessness 自由語(yǔ)素care 詞綴

57、-less 形成的派生詞careless 詞綴-nessPrefixes and Suffixes Affixes are divided into two kinds: -prefixes-suffixes 前綴和后綴PrefixesPrefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.前綴改變?cè)~干的意思，但通常不改變?cè)~的詞性。“be-”

58、 和“en (m)-”是例外。 SuffixesSuffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.后綴加在詞干的末尾，改變?cè)~的意思，并且在多數(shù)情況下，改變?cè)~的詞性。4.Morphological rules形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則 Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what t

59、ypes of stem to form a new word.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則主要指英語(yǔ)中通過派生方式構(gòu)成新詞的構(gòu)詞規(guī)則，即將詞綴加到詞干上去構(gòu)成新詞的規(guī)則。學(xué)習(xí)者必須掌握這些規(guī)則，但又要注意不能過分概括這些規(guī)則，以免生造出不存在的單詞。 5.Types of compound words復(fù)合詞的類型Noun + noun 名詞名詞 如：handbook, sunshineAdjective +noun 形容詞名詞 如：highway, sweetheartAdjective +noun +ed 形容詞名詞ed 如：white-haired, green=eyedVerb +noun 動(dòng)詞名詞 如

60、：pickpocket, drivewayAdverb +noun 副詞名詞 如：downtown, upgradeNoun +verb 名詞動(dòng)詞 如：toothpick, snowfallVerb +adverb 動(dòng)詞副詞 如：follow-up, kick-offNoun +adjective 名詞形容詞 如：world-famous, life-long-ing form +noun -ing形式名詞 如：dining-room, reading-glassesOther forms 其它形式 如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-n