古希臘早期哲學(xué)課件

1、古希臘早期哲學(xué)或名先蘇哲學(xué)Pre-Socratic philosophy 這條魚是在一次大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束後一年捕獲而後放生的？Aristotle 所建構(gòu)之歷史？Milesian SchoolEleatic SchoolPythagoreanPluralist SchoolAtomist School of PluralistsThales 624-546Anaximander 610-546Solon 580-570Anaximenes 585-525Xenophanes 580-480Pythagoras 580-500CleisthenesParmenides 539-469Heraclitus

2、540-475520 in Crotona established a secret religious society Zeno 490-430Empedocles 493-433Melissus 480-400Anaxagoras500-438Leucippus ca.450Democritus 460-370460-430SophistsGorgias483-375CratylusProtagoras484-411Socrates469-399Thales624-546 BCwater is substance佚聞經(jīng)濟(jì)：曾預(yù)言氣候變化，因此輸入橄欖壓榨機(jī)政治：曾預(yù)言日蝕，因此戰(zhàn)勝Iran

3、ians科學(xué)：曾測量金字塔高度希臘七賢之一Thales之格言O(shè)f all things that are, the most ancient is God, for he is uncreated. (岳不群與藍(lán)鳳凰之對(duì)話）The most beautiful is the universe, for it is Gods. The greatest is space, for it holds all things. The swiftest is mind, for it speeds everywhere. The strongest, necessity, for it masters

4、 all. The wisest, time, for it brings everything to light.Thales所問的問題：變化從何而來？Thales 之前，希臘人以神話、英雄與擬人化的神來解釋自然現(xiàn)象。Thales之改變：from which is everything that exists and from which it first becomes and into which it is rendered at last, its substance remaining under it, but transforming in qualities, that is

5、 the element and principle of things that are.For it is necessary that there be some nature, either one or more than one, from which become the other things of the object being saved. Thales the founder of this type of philosophy says that it is water.Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist sub

6、stance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded Oceanwater is substanceAnaximander610-547 BCApeiron is substanceThales之同鄉(xiāng)與學(xué)生製作過世界地圖曾擔(dān)任某城邦之領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of t

7、he opposites found in nature for example, water can only be wet, never dry and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the apeiron (limitless) as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw

8、around him.According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial （原本的）matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow（實(shí)體不能是對(duì)立中之經(jīng)驗(yàn)物或有限者）Anaximenes585-525 BCAer i

9、s substanceHe held that the air, with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, a

10、nd of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air. Milesian School 之意義The theoretical human

11、 has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or mythos) and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or logos). From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the

12、 thoughts of humans. 開啟變不變之討論變與不變、一與多、普遍與特殊一或多Eleatic School：不變-一-普遍Heraclitus：莫不變-多-特殊多-多間關(guān)係Pythagorean：數(shù)字和諧Pluralist School：質(zhì)Atomist School of Pluralists：量Eleatic School之先驅(qū):Xenophanes570 480 BC （約與Anaximenes同時(shí)）波斯征服Ionia後，遷往大希臘，在Elea定居。詩人，以批評(píng)希臘多神教與真理觀著稱知識(shí)論立場 Xenophanesthere actually exists a truth

13、of reality, but that humans as mortals are unable to know it.（生也有涯，知也無涯） Therefore, it is possible to act only on the basis of working hypotheses - we may act as if we knew the truth, as long as we know that this is extremely unlikely. This aspect of Xenophanes was brought out again by the late Sir

14、Karl Popper and is a basis of Critical rationalism. XenophanesBefore Xenophanes, the method of the natural philosophers was inductive. That is, their ideas were based on observations of the world. And, their proofs were empirical and direct. However, Xenophanes pointed out that these sorts of ideas

15、were relative. That is, different people had different perceptions of the world; therefore, they had different ideas of the world. Their ideas about the world may be true, but they could not know it. So, according to Xenophanes, we cannot be sure that ideas about the world that are inductively deriv

16、ed are true. That is, we cannot be sure that ideas about the world that are based on our perceptions of the world are true. This posed a problem for the presocratics. XenophanesHeraclitus的回答： He looked at what we can all agree to, that all is change. Inductively, if we look at the world, everything

17、changes. But, this is still induction, based on our perceptions of the world. Parmemides 的回答：the only truth is that that is deductively determined. Therefore, inductive truths are only opinions.Xenophanesthere was only one god - namely, the world. God is one incorporeal（至神無形） eternal being, and, lik

18、e the universe, spherical in form（圓融）; that he is of the same nature with the universe, comprehending all things within himself; is intelligent, and pervades all things (泛神論P(yáng)an-theism), but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind.There is no evidence that Xenophanes regarded this

19、 god with any religious feeling, and all we are told about him (or rather about it) is purely negative. He is quite unlike a man, and has no special organs of sense, but sees all over, thinks all over, hears all over (fr. 24). Further, he does not go about from place to place (fr. 26), but does ever

20、ything without toil (fr. 25). Eleatic School之主角: Parmenides539-469 BC或?yàn)镋lea貴族On Nature餘150行殘篇論aletheia 與 doxathere are two ways of inquiry: that it is, that it is not. He said that the latter argument is never feasible because nothing can not be:For never shall this prevail, that things that are not

21、 are. 有 vs. 沒有For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the ton

22、gue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (Logos) the much-contested proof which is expounded by me.Zeno of Eleaca. 490BC-430BC?SOPHIST之先驅(qū)Zenos ParadoxAchilles and the tortoiseYou can never catch up.“In a race, the quickest runner can never overtake the slowest, since the pursuer mus

23、t first reach the point whence the pursued started, so that the slower must always hold a lead The dichotomy paradoxYou cannot even start.“That which is in locomotion must arrive at the half-way stage before it arrives at the goal. The arrow paradoxYou cannot even move.“If everything when it occupie

24、s an equal space is at rest, and if that which is in locomotion is always occupying such a space at any moment, the flying arrow is therefore motionless. Heraclitus：變動(dòng)540-475BCEphesus in IoniaThe weeping philosopher 哭與笑Democritus had gone insane and was laughing at everything obsessively, including

25、weddings and funerals. Hippocrates found him surrounded by books and the bodies of animals which he had dissected to examine their bile. He said he was investigating the causes of insanity. On being questioned as to why he found the matters at which he laughed comical, he replied with the vanity arg

26、ument, that all is folly and baseness and a waste of time, which is essentially what Heraclitus had said. Hippocrates gave him a passing on mental health and went away. 八大山人？CHANGE is real, and stability illusory the nature of everything is change itself 殘篇Everything flows and nothing is left (uncha

27、nged), orEverything flows and nothing stands still, orAll things are in motion and nothing remains still. “By cosmic rule, as day yields night, so winter summer, war peace, plenty famine. All things change. Air penetrates the lump of myrrh, until the joining bodies die and rise again in smoke called

28、 incense.殘篇“Men do not know how that which is drawn in different directions harmonises with itself. The harmonious structure of the world depends upon opposite tension like that of the bow （弓） and the lyre（琴）.This universe, which is the same for all, has not been made by any god or man, but it alway

29、s has been, is, and will be an ever-living fire, kindling itself by regular measures and going out by regular measures“ , .We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not.“Or：”No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river and he is not the same man .“最著名

30、的話The idea of the logos （道）is also credited to him, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the logos. Further, Heraclitus said I am as I am not, and He who hears not me but the logos will say: All is one. 此亦一是非、彼亦一是非LogosPythagoreanism Pythagoras of Samos Between 580 and 572 BC between 50

31、0-490 BCIonia520 in Crotona established a secret religious society 名字： Pyth-ian乃Delphi之Apollo神廟， agor-意為說， He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the Pythian (Pyth-). 與佛同義，皆有大覺、智慧之意。Pythagorean theorem: a2b2=c2早年曾遊歷西亞與埃及，或因此而有宗教與數(shù)學(xué)傾向number is the ruler of forms and ideas and the cause of gods a

32、nd demons.Pythagoras and his students believed that everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality and, through mathematics, everything could be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles.Knowledge of the essence of being can be found in the form of numbe

33、rs. If this is taken a step further, one can say that because mathematics is an unseen essence, the essence of being is an unseen characteristic that can be encountered by the study of mathematics.One of Pythagoras beliefs was that the essence of being is number. Thus, being relies on stability of a

34、ll things that create the universe. Things like health relied on a stable proportion of elements; too much or too little of one thing causes an imbalance that makes a being unhealthy. 靈魂轉(zhuǎn)世：the soul were located in the brain and not the heart. He himself claimed to have lived four lives that he could

35、 remember in detail, and heard the cry of his dead friend in the bark of a dog.苦行僧、食素、冥想（靜坐）、戒律到神廟時(shí)要先敬神，路途中不要說話，不要做與日常生活有關(guān)的事物。切莫穿著鞋向神獻(xiàn)祭和禮拜。避免走大路，要走小道。聽命於神靈，最重要的是保持緘默。切勿用鐵器撥火。幫助負(fù)重的人，不要幫卸重的人。（雪裡送炭 vs.錦上添花）穿鞋從右腳開始，洗腳從左腳開始。不準(zhǔn)碰獻(xiàn)祭的魚。從家中出門後切莫向後看，因?yàn)閺?fù)仇女神緊跟著你。飼養(yǎng)白公雞，但切忌以白公雞祭祀。切勿讓燕子在屋簷下築巢。切莫吃豆子、心臟。桌上掉下來的東西不要吃。P

36、luralist School:Empedocles493-433 BCcitizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicilythe origin of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elementsall matter is made up of four elements: water, earth, air and fire. Empedocles called these the four roots; the term element ()Apart from these four ro

37、ots, Empedocles postulated something called Love () to explain the attraction of different forms of matter, and of something called Strife () to account for their separationLove and Strife explain their variation and harmonyPluralist School:Anaxagoras 500-438 BCIonia， 定居雅典he may have been a soldier

38、of the Persian army when Clazomenae was suppressed during the Ionia Revolt定居雅典。與Pericles相善 He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipse, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnese. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of

39、 stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. However, these theories brought him into collision with the popular faith; Anaxagoras views on such things as heavenly bodies were considered dangerous.About 450 Anaxagoras was arrested by Pericles political opponents on a charge of contraven

40、ing the established religion (some say the charge was one of Medism). It took Pericles power of persuasion to secure his release. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Ionia (c. 434-433 BC). All things have existed from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesima

41、lly small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There were the seeds (spermata) or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture; but these parts, of like nature with their

42、 wholes had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character. Mind arranged the segregation of like from unlike. This peculiar thing, called Mind (Nous), was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but, unlike the logos of Heraclitus, it stood pure an

43、d independent (mounos ef eoutou), a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life.Mind causes motion. It rotated the primitive mixture, starting in one corne

44、r or point, and gradually extended until it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts, working something like a centrifuge, and eventually creating the known cosmos. But even after it had done its best, the original intermixture of things was not wholly overcome. No one thing in

45、the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things.Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in the process. The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, earth an

46、d stones. The seeds of life which continued floating in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegetation. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things coming in

47、to being and passing from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and disruption (diakrisis). （生滅即聚散）Thus Anaxagoras distrusted the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of reflection. from original chaos to present arrangementsAnaxago

48、ras marked a turning-point in the history of philosophy. With him speculation passes from the colonies of Greece to settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory. However, h

49、is enunciation of the order that comes from an intelligent mind suggested the theory that nature is the work of design.地位Atomist School of PluralistsLeucippus約與Empedocles、Anaxagoras同時(shí)，AbderaNothing happens at random (maten), but everything from reason (ek logou) and by necessity.Atomist School of Pl

50、uralistsDemocritus460-360 BCAbdera in ThraceAtomahe prefers to discover a causality rather than become a king of Persia.Of knowledge there are two forms, one legitimate, one bastard. To the bastard belong all this group: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The other is legitimate and separate from

51、that. When the bastard can no longer see any smaller, or hear, or smell, or taste, or perceive by touch, but finer matters have to be examined, then comes the legitimate, since it has a finer organ of perception.” (Fr. 11 Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 138).But we in actuality grasp nothing for certain, bu

52、t what shifts in accordance with the condition of the body and of the things (atoms) which enter it and press upon it. (Fr. 9 Sextus Adv. Math. VII 136).兩種知識(shí)different tastes were a result of differently shaped atoms in contact with the tongue. Smells and sounds could be explained similarly. Vision w

53、orks by the eye receiving images or effluences of bodies that are emanated. Sweet exists by convention, bitter by convention, color by convention; but in reality atoms and the void alone exist.senses could not provide a direct or certain knowledge of the world. In his words, It is necessary to reali

54、ze that by this principle man is cut off from the real.感覺Though intelligence is allowed to explain the organization of the world, according to Democritus, he does give place for the existence of a soul, which he contends is composed of exceedingly fine and spherical atoma. He holds that, spherical a

55、toma move because it is their nature never to be still, and that as they move they draw the whole body along with them, and set it in motion. In this way, he viewed soul-atoma as being similar to fire-atoma: small, spherical, capable of penetrating solid bodies and good examples of spontaneous motion.靈魂SophistsKleisthenes之改革(509-507)：取消自然關(guān)係與財(cái)產(chǎn)身份，人人平等、允許平民任官波斯戰(zhàn)爭後Pericles之黃金時(shí)代(460-430)：知識(shí)突進(jìn)、經(jīng)濟(jì)繁榮、社會(huì)分裂、爭訟增加販?zhǔn)壑R(shí)、以便買者獲利（法庭勝訴、議場雄辯）智者、吹毛求疵者古代 vs.啟蒙1. 法律是合法的、應(yīng)被遵守的 2. 服從法律有利、不服從有害。憲法常變、法律權(quán)威不再。民主問：法律之合法性何在？是否有普遍適用的法律規(guī)範(fàn)？與自然哲學(xué)搭上線Sophist： 法律：利益創(chuàng)造法律、法律保障利益。 道德：符合利益則守法，否則則否。Sophist之始：Protag