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Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022aAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022

Rethinkingsectoralstrategiesforahuman-centredfutureofworkAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022Rethinkingsectoralstrategiesforahuman-centredfutureofworkCopyright?InternationalLabourOrganization2022Firstpublished2022PublicationsoftheInternationalLabourOrganizationenjoycopyrightunderProtocol2oftheUniversalCopyrightConvention.Nevertheless,shortexcerptsfromthemmaybereproducedwithoutauthorization,onconditionthatthesourceisindicated.Forrightsofreproductionortranslation,applicationshouldbemadetoILOPublications(RightsandLicensing),InternationalLabourOffice,CH-1211Geneva22,Switzerland,orbyemail:rights@.TheInternationalLabourOfficewelcomessuchapplications.Libraries,institutionsandotherusersregisteredwithareproductionrightsorganizationmaymakecopiesinaccordancewiththelicencesissuedtothemforthispurpose.Visittofindthereproductionrightsorganizationinyourcountry.Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022:Rethinkingsectoralstrategiesforahuman-centredfutureofworkInternationalLabourOffice–Geneva:ILO,2022.ISBN:9789220381472(webpdf);9789220381465(print)/10.54394/EQNI6264labourmarketanalysis/economicsector/employment/decentwork/futureofwork/Asia/Pacific/report13.01.1ILOCataloguinginPublicationDataThedesignationsemployedinILOpublications,whichareinconformitywithUnitedNationspractice,andthepresentationofmaterialthereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheILOconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,areaorterritoryorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiers.Theresponsibilityforopinionsexpressedinsignedarticles,studiesandothercontributionsrestssolelywiththeirauthors,andpublicationdoesnotconstituteanendorsementbytheILOoftheopinionsexpressedinthem.ReferencetonamesoffirmsandcommercialproductsandprocessesdoesnotimplytheirendorsementbytheILO,andanyfailuretomentionaparticularfirm,commercialproductorprocessisnotasignofdisapproval.InformationonILOpublicationsanddigitalproductscanbefoundat:/publns.Coverphoto?ILOPrintedinThailandAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022iiiForewordForewordThereisahustleandbustleinmostareasofAsiaandthePacificagainaftertwoyearsofquietstreetsandlimitedmobility.Touristsareback,restaurantsandshopsareopenandtrafficjamsinurbanareashaveresumed,withcars,buses,taxisandmotorbikesfullofdailycommuters,schoolkidsanddeliveries.Lookcloserthoughandyouwillspotshopsthatremainboardedup,many“forsale”signsonbuildings,morestreetsleepersthanusualandanincreasednumberofstreetprotests–allvisiblesignsthattheregionhasnotyetfullybouncedbackfromtheblowoftheCOVID-19pandemic.Thelimitedrecoveryisfurtherreflectedinthelabourmarketstatisticspresentedinthisreport.ThisthirdeditionofthebiennialAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlookshowsthatthenumberofpersonsworkingintheregionin2021hadnotyetsurpassedthenumberofworkersin2019.Thenumberofpersonsremainingoutsidethelabourmarketremainedinflatedaswell.TheCOVID-19crisisstandsoutincomparisontopreviouscrisesthatimpactedtheregion,namelytheAsianfinancialcrisisof1997–98andtheglobalfinancialcrisisof2007–09,astheonlyonetodisrupttherisingtrendinemploymentnumbersattheregionallevel.AndletusnotforgetthelossinworkinghoursandassociatedincomelossesexperiencedduringtheCOVID-19crisisthat,addedtothelossofjobsgiveafullerdepictionoftheimpactfelt.Thereportdiscusseswherelabourmarketsarerecovering,evenifnowconfrontedbyabarrageofnewchallengeslikeinflationandgeopoliticaltensionsthathavecreatedheadwindstoemployment-friendlymacroeconomicpoliciesandenterpriseresilience.Itmakesafirst-timeassessmentofregionalsectoralestimatestohighlightwhichsectorsaregrowingassourcesofjobs,whichareshrinkingandwhichharbouropportunitiesfor“decentwork”.OnethingthatIfindespeciallyvaluableaboutthiseditionoftheOutlookisitsreminderofthecontinueddominanceofthe“big”sourcesoflabourincomeintheregion,thesebeingagriculture,manufacturingandwholesaleandretailtrade,where60percentoftheregion’sworkforceisengaged.Onaverage,jobsinthesesectorsaremoreinformalthanformal,morelowskillthanhighskillandmorelikelytoseeworkersleftwithoutsocialprotectionorjobsecurity.Thelimitedscopefordecentworkinthesesectorsreflectsinparttheconstrainedcapacityoflabourmarketinstitutionstocoverenterprisesandworkerswithinallindustrialsectorsequallyinthenationalframeworkoflabourprotectionandemploymentpolicies.Italsohastodowiththechallengesthatworkersandmicroandsmallenterprisesinthesesectorsexperiencetoorganizethemselvesforeffectivecollectivebargaining.Knowingthisgivesusaclearstartingpointforactioninpursuitofahuman-centredrecoverythatisinclusive,sustainableandresilientintheAsiaandPacificregion.TheInternationalLabourOrganizationstandsreadytoapplyallthetoolsatourdisposaltoworkwithgovernmentsaswellasworkers’andemployers’organizationstostrengthenandexpandlabourmarketgovernancefortargetedsupporttotheworkersandenterprisesinthelargesectors.Transformingworkintodecentworkwithinallsectors,butespeciallythoseshowingthelargestdecentworkdeficits,willbringinclusivegrowthtoAsiaandthePacificandsettheregionbackontracktoahuman-centredfutureofwork.ChihokoAsada-MiyakawaAssistantDirector-GeneralandRegionalDirectorforAsiaandthePacificInternationalLabourOrganizationAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022vContentsContentsXForewordiiiXAcknowledgementsixXAbbreviationsxXExecutivesummaryxiX1.Introduction1X2.ThelabourmarketsituationinAsiaandthePacific32.1Macroeconomiccontext42.2Employmenttrends112.3Economicinactivityandunemploymenttrends162.3.1.Inactivity172.3.2.Unemployment202.4Decentworktrends222.5COVID-19crisisandvulnerabilities:Whathavewelearned?272.6Ahollowrecovery29X3.Wherepeopleworkandwhyitmattersforinclusivegrowth323.1Sectoraldistributionofemployment323.1.1Distributionby21sectors323.1.2Manufacturingsectorinfocus363.2Measuringdecentworkbysectors393.3Changingpatternsinemploymentbysector443.3.1Shrinkingsectors443.3.2High-growthsectors453.3.3Sectoralshiftsovertime473.4Sectoralshifts,labourproductivityanddevelopment503.5SectoralemploymentandCOVID-19impact54X4.Asectorallensforthehuman-centredfutureofwork584.1Towardsdecentworkpromotion594.2Fromdecentworktoinclusivegrowth614.3Policyrecommendationsforsectoralapproachestodecentworkandinclusivegrowthpromotion62XReferences67XAnnex1.CountryandincomegroupingsforAsiaandthePacific71XAnnex2.Additionalfigures72XAnnex3.Methodologyforsectoralemploymentestimates75viAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022ContentsListoffigures1.GDPestimatesandprojections,AsiaandPacific,2019–2342.GDPgrowth,AsiaandPacificregionandsubregions,2019–2353.Shareofemployedincountrieswithpandemic-relatedworkplaceclosures,AsiaandPacific,6January2020–September20224.Annualinflationratesandinflationtargetsofcentralbanks,selectedAsiancountries,7September20225.Pricesofselectedcommoditiesin2022,percentagechangefrom201986.Totalenergysupply,bysource,AsiaandPacific,1990–201987.Generalgovernmentgrossdebt,AsiaandPacificregion,subregionsandeconomies,20199and20228.MonthlyexportsofgoodsfromAsiaandthePacific,2014–22109.Totalemploymentandemployment-to-populationratio,AsiaandPacific,2005–221210.Employmentchange,bysexandagegroup,AsiaandPacificregionandsubregions,2019–221211.Workinghourlossesrelativetothe2019fourthquarterlevel,AsiaandPacificregionand15subregions,2020-2212.Inactivitychange,AsiaandPacific,2019–221713.Unemploymentandunemploymentrate,AsiaandPacific2114.Workingpovertyrateandvulnerableemploymentrate,totalandbyincomegroup,Asiaand23Pacific,2015–2115.Informalandformalemployment,AsiaandPacific,2019–222416.Labourincomeshareofthebottom50percent,globalregionsandAsiaandPacificsubregions,272009and201917.Labourforceparticipationrateofprime-agemothersandfathersofsmallchildren,Asiaand28Pacificsubregionsandglobal,202018.Labourmarketstatus,actualestimatesagainsthypotheticalno-COVID-19scenario,Asiaand29Pacific,2015–2319.Tensectorswithlargestemploymentshares,bysexandagecohort,AsiaandPacific,20213320.Leadingsectorsinemploymentshare,AsiaandPacificsubregions,20213521.Employmentinthemanufacturingsector,AsiaandPacific3722.Spectrumofjobquality,bysectorofemployment,AsiaandPacific4023.Toptenemploymentgrowthsectors(averageannualrates)andfemaleshareinemployment45growth,AsiaandPacific,1991–202124.Employmentincrease,topfivesectorsinnominalgrowthandtopfivesectorsinpercentage47growth,AsiaandPacific,1991–202125.Employment,bybroadsector,AsiaandPacific,1991–20214826.Changeinsectoralemployment,AsiaandPacificsubregions,1991–20214827.Characteristicsofemploymentindicators,bybroadsector,AsiaandPacific,1991–202149Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022viiContents28.Changeinemploymentshare,bybroadsector,low-andhigh-growtheconomygroupings,512010–19ornearestyears29.Industrialemploymentshare,middle-incomeeconomiesofAsiaandthePacific,20215230.Labourproductivitygrowth,totalandbybroadsector,AsiaandPacific,2000–205331.Decompositionoflabourproductivitygrowth,AsiaandPacific,selectedperiods5332.Changeinemploymentinthemanufacturingsector,economiesinAsiaandthePacific,2019–215633.Changeinemploymentintheagriculturesector,economiesinAsiaandthePacific,1991–201957and2019–21A1.Totalemploymentandemployment-to-populationratio,AsiaandPacificsubregions,2005–2272A2.Employment-to-populationratio,bysex,AsiaandPacificregionandsubregions,2002and732022A3.Employment,bybroadsector,AsiaandPacificsubregions,1991–202174Listoftables1.Distributionofemploymentbylow-tomedium-skillandhigh-skilloccupationalgroupings25(2021)andpercentagechangeinemploymentbyoccupationalgrouping(2019–21),AsiaandPacificregionandsubregions2.GDPgrowthandemployment,byformal,informal,wageandvulnerablestatus,Asiaand26Pacific,variousperiods3.YouthNEETrates,2022,andchangeinnumberofyouthNEETs,2019–22,AsiaandPacific28regionandsubregions4.Broademploymentprofiles,byselectedsectors,AsiaandPacific415.Sectorswithfemaleshareofemploymentgrowthhigherthan50percent,AsiaandPacific,461991–20216.Employmentchange,AsiaandPacific,2019–2155Boxes1.Goodnewsordatarevisions?UnderstandingchangesintheILONovember2022modelled14estimates2.COVID-19andteleworkinAsiaandthePacific163.HowdoestheCOVID-19crisiscomparetotheAsianfinancialandglobalfinancialcrises?184.CombiningworkandparentinginAsiaandthePacific195.WhytheunemploymentrateisaweakmetricofdecentworkinAsiaandthePacific206.Whatarelabourmarketinstitutions?617.PromotinginternationallabourstandardsinglobalsupplychainsinChina63Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022ixAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsThisreportisanoutputoftheRegionalEconomicandSocialAnalysisUnitoftheInternationalLabourOrganization’sRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,ledbySaraElder.TheauthorsofthereportareSaraElderandChristianViegelahn.PhuHuynhandRichardHorneauthoredsomeoftheSectoralLabourMarketProfilesthatwerepreparedforreleasewiththisreport.Thefoundationofthereportislabourmarketinformation.WeextendgreatappreciationtocolleaguesintheILOStatisticsDepartmentandtheResearchDepartmentwhodiligentlycull,standardizeanddisseminatecountry-levellabourstatisticsanddesignandruntheestimationmodelsthatgeneratesubregionalandregionalestimates.StefanKühnoftheILOResearchDepartment,incoordinationwithChristianViegelahn,wasinstrumentalinthedevelopmentofthemodeltoproducethesectoralestimates.WealsothankDavidBescond,RogerGomis,TiteHabiyakare,StevenKapsos,ArchivalMahajan,QuentinMathys,YvesPerardelandMabelinVillarreal-Fuentesfortheirtirelesseffortsinsupportingtheproductionofstatistics.TheteamwishestoacknowledgethehelpfulcommentsandsuggestionsonthedraftprovidedbytwoanonymousreviewersandILOcolleaguesintheEmploymentPolicyDepartment(KeeBeomKim,DorotheaSchmidt-KlauandYadongWang),theResearchDepartment(StefanKühn,CatherineSagetandMiguelSanchezMartinez),theSectoralPoliciesDepartment(ElisendaEstruchPuertas,MarenHopfe,YasuhikoKamakura,MargheritaLicata,OliverLiangandLucieServoz)andtheStatisticsDepartment(RogerGomis,StevenKapsos,YvesPerardelandMarie-ClaireSodergren).Thereportalsobenefitedfromvaluablefeedbackbythefollowingregionaltechnicalspecialists:NilimBaruah,NunoCunha,PhuHuynh,BjornJohannessen,ArunKumar,DongEungLee,InsafNizam,TomasStenstromandFelixWeidenkaff.KarenEmmonseditedthereport,andFlorianSaint-Aubinorganizedthegraphicdesignandlayout.HatairatThongprapaiprovidedadministrativesupportthroughouttheprocess.Finally,weextendourthankstocolleaguesintheRegionalDepartmentofCommunicationandPublicInformationfortheircollaborationandsupportinthedisseminationofthereport.xAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022AbbreviationsAbbreviationsAPECASEANCOVID-19GDPILOLFSMSMEsNEETOECDUNIDO

Asia–PacificEconomicCooperationAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationscoronavirusdiseasegrossdomesticproductInternationalLabourOrganizationlabourforcesurveymicro,smallandmedium-sizedenterprisesnotinemployment,educationortrainingOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganizationUnlessspecified,all$referencesrefertoUnitedStatesdollars.Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022xiExecutivesummaryExecutivesummaryLabourmarketsinAsiaandthePacifichaveonlypartiallyrecoveredfromtheCOVID-19crisis.Ithasbeenafewroughyearsforgovernments,workersandenterprisesintheAsia–Pacificregion.Inthetwoyearssincethe2020editionofthisreport,allcountriesintheregioncontinuedtheirstruggleagainsttheglobalpandemicanditsrelatedeconomicfallout.Somecountriesarealsoreelingfromvariouspolitical,socialandenvironmentalcrises.Intherealityofcontinuingsocio-economicuncertainties,withhighinflationratesthreateningmillionsoflivelihoodsacrosstheregion,countriesarefacinganuphillbattleintheirendeavourtoprogresstowardsthe“human-centredrecoverythatisinclusive,sustainableandresilient”,towhichtheyhadpledgedintheiradoptionofa2021GlobalCalltoActionbytheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).1Labourmarketrecoveryintheregionlagsbehindgloballevels.Jobgrowthdidoccurin2021and2022,recoveringfromthe3.1percentdropinemploymentin2020.By2022,employmentnumbersintheAsia–Pacificregionwere2.0percentabovethepre-crisislevelof2019.Onthesurface,theemploymenttrendslookpositive.Diggingdeeper,thereremainnumeroussignsthattheregion’slabourmarketisnotyetbackonitspre-crisistrack.First,whileemploymentgrowthwasagainpositive,theemployment-to-populationratioin2022remainedstillslightlybelowpre-crisistrend,at56.2percentin2022from56.9percentin2019.Second,comparedtowherejobnumberswouldbeinAsiaandthePacifichadthedisruptionoftheCOVID-19crisisneverhappened,thereisacontinuedjobsgapof22million(1.1percent)in2022.Thejobsgapisprojectedtoincreaseagainto26million(1.4percent)in2023giventheheadwindstogrowthforeseenincurrentgeopoliticalglobalandregionalcontext.Third,theaggregatehoursofworkintheregionwasnotyetbacktopre-crisislevels.Theworking-hourlossesinthefirstthreequartersof2022comparedtothefourthquarterof2019amountedtoanestimated1.5percent(1.9percentformenand0.5percentforwomen).Fourth,atnearly105million,theregionalunemploymentnumberwasstill12percenthigherin2022thanin2019andtheregionalunemploymentratewasstill0.5percentagepointsabovethe2019rate,at5.2percent.Fifth,thenumberofpersonsoutsidethelabourforceremainsinflatedabovethepre-crisislevelformenandwomen,youthandadultandacrossallsubregions.Sixth,thegradualdeclineinthenumberofpersonsininformalemploymentattheregionallevelthrough2019wasreversedduringthecrisis,aswasthedeclineinvulnerableemployment.Asaresult,theslowdeclineintheinformalemploymentrateandvulnerableemploymentratehasstalled.Thesectoraldistributionofemploymentintheregionhighlightsthecontinueddominanceoftraditionalsectors.ThethreelargestsectorsintermsofemploymentintheAsia–Pacificregionareagriculture,forestryandfishing;manufacturing;andwholesaleandretailtrade.Thesesectorstogetheraccountedfor1.1billionworkersin2021,or60percentoftheregion’s1.9billionworkforce.Thesesectorsarewherethemajorityofmenandwomenworkersearntheirlabourincome(plustheconstructionsectorformen).Buttheyarealsosectorsinwhichlabourproductivity2oftenremainslowandthattypicallydonotofferdecentwages,goodworkingconditionsorjobandincomesecurity.MostjobsILOconstituentsadoptedthe“Globalcalltoactionforahuman-centredrecoveryfromtheCOVID-19crisisthatisinclusive,sustainableandresilient”atthe109thInternationalLabourConferenceinJune2021.Measuredasvalueaddedperpersonemployed.xiiAsia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022Executivesummaryinthedominantemploymentsectorsarealsonotcoveredbynationalsocialprotectionsystems.Inotherwords,thesearenotthesectorsthatgeneratepositivedecentworkoutcomes.Littlehaschangedintermsofthedominantsharesofworkinlow-productivitysectorsandassociateddecentworkdeficitsdespitehalfacenturyofeconomicgrowth.Infact,wheresomeprogresswasseeninincreasingsharesofformalemployment,decliningworkingpovertysharesandothersignalsofdecentworkoverthethreedecadesofdataavailability,suchprogresswasseentostallorevenreverseduringtheCOVID-19crisis.Thegapbetweenthesectorswiththelargestnumberofworkersandthesectorsthatexperiencethehighestjobgrowthratesovertimeisreminiscentoftheregion’slabourmarketduality.Various“modern”sectorsthatabsorbhigher-skilledworkers,likeinformationtechnology(IT)andbusinessservices,haveexpandedtheirworkforcesatarapidpaceoverthepastfewdecades.Regardless,asashareoftotalemployment,employmentintheseso-calledmodernsectorsremainslow.Asanexample,theregion’sfastestgrowingsectorintermsofemploymentgrowthovertimewastheITandotherinformationservicessector.Employmentnumbersinthesectorgrew7.2percentannuallybetween1991and2021.Yetonly9.4millionpersonsworkedinthesectorin2021,correspondingto0.5percentoftotalemployment,andthreequartersofthe8millionjobsgainedovertimewenttomen.Comparethistothewholesaleandretailtradesector,whichadded166millionworkersoverthe1991–2021periodandemployed277millionmenandwomenintheregionin2021.Thechangingcompositionofsectoralemploymentfavoursmenoverwomenintermsofdecentworkopportunities.LiketheITsector,mostoftheothersectorsofhighemploymentgrowthalsobenefitedmenworkersoverwomenworkers.OnlyoneofthetoptensectorsofemploymentgrowthintheAsia–Pacificregionfavouredemploymentofwomen,theaccommodationandfoodserviceactivities,where55percentofaddedjobsbetween1991and2021wenttowomen.Amongallsectorsexaminedinthethree-decadeperiodof1991–2021,onlyfiveexperiencedhigheremploymentgainsforwomenthanmen.3Withthesegregationofmenintosectorsthatofferhigherwagepotential(likeIT)andwomenremaininginlower-payingsectors(accommodationandfoodserviceactivities,forexample),progressonclosingthegenderwagegapswithinmanycountrieshasbeenstalled.Makingprogresstowardswageequitywillrequirebattlingitfromseveralfronts:(i)promotingpayequityattheenterpriselevelinallsectors;(ii)encouragingwomentoworkinhigher-payingsectorsandoccupations;(iii)educatingwomeninfieldswithhigherwagepotential(likeIT);and(iv)overcomingnormsofdiscriminationonthehiringofwomeninthemale-dominantsectors.TheAsia–Pacificregionlagsinitsachievementofdecentworkobjectives;thisistrueinboomingtimesandthroughcrises.AseconomiesandlabourmarketsinallregionsstruggletogetbackontrackafterexperiencingthemostsignificantsetbackssincetheSecondWorldWar,itisimportanttoconsiderwhat“ontrack”meansandwhetheritistherighttrackforthelonger-runtransformationofcountries.ThedecadesprecedingtheCOVID-19crisissawsizableeconomicgrowthratesinmanyAsiancountriesbutshrinkinglabourincomesharesandonlylimitedgainsondecentworkoutcomes.Economicgrowthintheregionhaslinkedtothecreationofformaljobsand,toacertaindegree,wageemployment.Butithasnotlinkedtothetransformationofinformaltoformalemploymentforworkersalreadyinthatstatusnortothebettermentofdecentworkoutcomesforthemajorityoftheregion’sworkers.Thechallengemovingforwardwillbetoincreaseandsustainpublicinvestmentinlabourmarketinstitutionstoachievedecentworkoutcomesinallsectors,butespeciallythosewherethemajorityofpeoplework.Continuedfiscalsupportisrequiredtoputlabourmarketrecoveryonmoresolidground.TheexperienceoftheCOVID-19crisisraisedtheredflagonmanyofthelingeringdeficienciesandshiftedcertainworld-of-workissuestowardsthetopofgovernmentprioritylistsforacceleratedaction.Forinstance,thecrisisincreasedawarenessoftheimportanceofsocialprotectionsystemsandenterprisesupportandAnnex3explainsthemethodologyforclassificationandanalysisofsectoralemployment.Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook2022xiiiExecutivesummarythecriticalroleofworkers’safetyandhealthinbusinesscontinuity.Recognizingthelessonsofthecrisisresponseandsustainingtheheightenedinvestmentinthepolicyareasneededtogenerateahuman-centredrecoverywillbechallengingfortheregionmovingforwardinthecontextofnewcrisesandinflationthathavecomeonthetailofCOVID-19.Becauseconsumersinallcountrieswillneedcontinuingfiscalsupporttooffsettheblowtotheircostofliving,thehopeisthatgovernmentswillcontinuetoengageintargetedeconomicstimulusandfiscalsupports.Insituationsinwhichdemandcannotbeboostedthroughincreasedgovernmentspending,progressivewagepoliciesfacilitatedthroughsocialdialoguewilltakeonaddedimportancewiththeircapacitytosustainconsumptionlevels.Beyondrecovery,totransforminclusivegrowthinAsiaandthePacific,governmentswillneedtoelevatelabourmarketinstitutionsandempowerworkers’andemployers’groups,especiallyinkeysectors.Thelingeringdecentworkdeficits,includinggendergaps,thestubbornlyhighratesofinformalemploymentandweaklabourrelationshavedraggeddownthedevelopmenttrajectoriesoftheregion’sdevelopingeconomies.Withmorethanonebillionworkersintheregioninagriculture,manufacturingandwholesaleandretailtrade,strengtheningtheinstitutionstoimprovedecentworkoutcomesinthesethreesectorsalonecouldelevatelivingstandardsandthespendingpowerofasizable(ifnotthemajority)shareoftheregion’spopulation.Yet,makinglabourmarketinstitutionsmoreeffectiveremainsaseriouschallengeformanydevelopingcountries,giventheinvestmentrequired,especiallyinthecurrentcontextofglobalgeopoliticalandmacroeconomicinstability.Notwithstandingthesedifficulties,therearemanyrecentinnovationsinareasoflabourmarketgovernancethatarebeingappliedwithinparticularsectorsthatcanbescaledupinthelongerterm.Thepathwayforahuman-centredrecoveryintheshorttermandinclusiveeconomicgrowthinthemediumtolongtermisonewherebygovernmentsworktogetherwithworkers’andemployers’organizationstostrengthenlabourmarketinstitutions(thepublicinstitutionsthatsetandenforcelabourstandards,thatprovidesocialprotection,employmentservicesandenterprisesupportandthatfacilitatesocialdialogue),particularlyinthesectorswithlowerdecentworkoutcomes.SpecificrecommendationstoacceleratetheachievementofdecentworkatsectorallevelsinAsiaandthePacific,andinsodoing,boostingthepotentialforinclusivegrowthintheregion,include:supportsocialupgradinginsectorsthroughthedesignandenforcementoflabourstandards;supporteffectivesocialdialogue;takeactiontowardsformalization;promoteentrepreneurshipandenterprisesupportforbottom-upgrowth;enforcegoodgovernanceinlabourmigration;matchsupplyanddemand;targetsupporttowomen-intensivesectorsandincreaseopportunitiesforwomentoworkinallsectors;andsupportdigitalizationtotransformlivelihoodswithinsectors.Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook202211.Introduction1?ILO2Asia–PacificEmploymentandSocialOutlook20221.Introduction1.IntroductionThisthirdeditionoftheInternationalLabourOrganization’s(ILO)Asia–PacificEmploymentand