事理學的歷史與發(fā)展課件

TheHistoryandDevelopmentofCyberneticsTheHistoryandDevelopmentofCybernetics事理學的歷史與發(fā)展TheHistoryandDevelopmentofPresentedbyTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversityinCooperationwithTheAmericanSocietyforCyberneticsTheHistoryandDevelopmentofCyberneticsTheHistoryandDevelopmentofCybernetics事理學的歷史與發(fā)展PresentedbyTheGeorgeWashinHistoryofCyberneticsManyyearsago...很久以前…HistoryofCyberneticsManyyeaThethingsapersonhadtounderstandtogetthroughlifewererelativelyuncomplicated.一個人要從生活中理解的事情相對來說還不是很復(fù)雜。RelativeComplicationThethingsapersonhadtoundEveryobjectorprocess,whichweshallrefertoasasystem,wasrelativelysimple.每一個物體或者過程，如果我們可稱之為一個系統(tǒng)，都還相對簡單。Objects&ProcessesEveryobjectorprocess,whichInfact,upuntilthelastfewhundredyears,itwaspossibleforsomepeopletomasterasignificantportionofman'sexistingknowledge.事實上，一直到最近的幾百年前，對于某些人而言，他們一個人就有可能掌握人類現(xiàn)存知識體系中相當重要的一部分。KnowledgeMasteryLeonardo

DaVinciInfact,upuntilthelastfewLeonardoDaVinciwasaleaderinthefieldsofpainting..達芬奇是繪畫領(lǐng)域的領(lǐng)軍人物….DaVinci–PaintingLeonardoDaVinciwasaleader...sculpture...…但同時也是雕塑領(lǐng)域的…DaVinci,cont.–Sculpture...sculpture...DaVinci,...anatomy...…也是解剖學專家…DaVinci,cont.–Anatomy...anatomy...DaVinci,c...architecture...…建筑學專家…DaVinci,cont.–Architecture...architecture...DaVi...weaponsengineering,and...…武器制造工程師…而且還是…DaVinci,cont.–WeaponsEngineering...weaponsengineering,nauticalengineering.Thisishissketchfora16thcenturyflyingmachine...…航空工程師。這是他畫的16世紀的飛行器的草圖…DaVinci,cont.–AeronauticalEnauticalengineering...andforaparachuteincasethemachinebrokedown.…如果飛行器出了問題，這是降落傘的草圖。DaVinci,cont.–AeronauticalEngineering,cont....andforaparachuteincAstimepassed,thesystemsthathumanswereconcernedwithbecame...隨著時間的推移，人類所關(guān)注的系統(tǒng)開始變得…Complexity

復(fù)雜性SystemsComplexityAstimepassed,thesystemsth...moreandmorecomplicated.…越來越復(fù)雜。SystemsComplexity,cont....moreandmorecomplicateTransportationsystemsalonehavebecomemorecomplex...只是交通系統(tǒng)就已經(jīng)變得更復(fù)雜了…SystemsComplexity,cont.Transportationsystemsaloneh...andmorecomplex...…而且越來越復(fù)雜…SystemsComplexity,cont....andmorecomplex...S...andmorecomplex...…越來越復(fù)雜…SystemsComplexity,cont....andmorecomplex...S...andmorecomplex...…越來越復(fù)雜…SystemsComplexity,cont....andmorecomplex...S

...ashaveenergysystems.…能源系統(tǒng)也是如此。SystemsComplexity,cont....ashaveenergysystems.

Somepeoplehavesuggestedthattechnology...

有些人建議技術(shù)…TechnologyAdvances Somepeoplehavesuggestedt...isadvancingsorapidlyit...…發(fā)展得如此迅猛…TechnologyAdvances,cont....isadvancingsorapidly...isoutpacingourabilitytocontrolit.…已經(jīng)超出了我們能夠控制的能力了。TechnologyAdvances,cont.ThreeMileIsland...isoutpacingourabilityClearly,itisnolongerpossibleforonepersontokeepupwithdevelopmentsinallfields,letalonebealeaderinmanyofthem,asLeonardoDaVinciwas.很顯然，像達芬奇那樣一個人能夠在許多領(lǐng)域發(fā)展并成為各個領(lǐng)域的領(lǐng)軍人物已經(jīng)不再可能了。KeepingupwithDevelopmentsClearly,itisnolongerpossiSpecializationhasbecomeanecessity.Howthen,doweliveandworkeffectivelyinatechnicallyadvancedsociety?專業(yè)化成為了一種必須。那么，我們怎么樣才能有效地生活和工作在一個技術(shù)高度發(fā)達的社會中呢？HowtoLiveandWorkinaTechnicallyAdvancedSociety?SpecializationhasbecomeaneUnderlyingPrinciplesIsthereawaythatyou,themodernmanorwoman,cansortthroughthecomplexity,formulateasetofprinciplesunderlyingallsystemsandtherebyenhanceyourabilitytoregulatetheworldinwhichyoulive?你，作為一個現(xiàn)代人，有可能在這些復(fù)雜性當中尋找出一系列適用于所有系統(tǒng)的原則，并由此而提高自己的能力來調(diào)節(jié)你所居住的這個世界嗎？UnderlyingPrinciplesIsthereCybernetics=RegulationofSystems

事理學＝系統(tǒng)的調(diào)節(jié)Thisquestionwasofinteresttoahandfulofpeopleinthe1940swhowerethepioneersinafieldthathasbecomeknownasCybernetics,thescienceoftheregulationofsystems.1940年的時候，有一批人對這個問題產(chǎn)生了興趣，他們成了這個的領(lǐng)域的探索先鋒，該領(lǐng)域后來被稱為事理學，也就是如何調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)的科學。Cybernetics=RegulationofSystemsCybernetics=RegulationofSyCyberneticsisaninterdisciplinarysciencethatlooksatanyandallsystemsfrommolecules...事理學是一門跨學科科學，研究的是任何一種系統(tǒng)，小到分子…Cybernetics–anInterdisciplinaryScienceCyberneticsisaninterdiscipl...togalaxies,withspecialattentiontomachines,animalsandsocieties.…大到銀河系，對機器、動物和社會也有特別的關(guān)注。WhatCyberneticsLooksat...togalaxies,withspeciaCyberneticsisderivedfromtheGreekwordforsteersmanorhelmsman,whoprovidesthecontrolsystemforaboatorship.Cybernetics這個詞是從希臘語的舵手steersmanorhelmsman來的，舵手就是在船上控制船系統(tǒng)的人。DerivationofCyberneticsCyberneticsisderivedfromthThiswordwascoinedin1948anddefinedasasciencebyNorbertWiener,whowasbornin1894anddiedin1964.HebecameknownastheFatherofCybernetics.這個詞在1948年由NorbertWiener借用來定義了這門科學。Wiener生于1894，死于1964，是公認的事理學之父。NorbetWeinerThiswordwascoinedin1948aWienerwasanappliedmathematician,biologist,andelectricalengineer.HeworkedduringWorldWarIIontheradar-guidedanti-aircraftgun.Wiener本人是應(yīng)用數(shù)學家、生物學家和電子工程師。在二戰(zhàn)期間，他研發(fā)了雷達控制的防空高炮。Wiener–RadarWienerwasanappliedmathematHeconnectedaspecialradartothegunsothatitwasaimedautomaticallyattheenemyaircraft.Afterthegunwasfired,theradarquicklydeterminedthechanginglocationoftheplaneandre-aimedthegununtiltheplanewasshotdown.他在高射炮上連上了一個特殊的雷達裝置，會自動瞄準敵人的飛機。在炮彈發(fā)射后，雷達會快速確定飛機的變化位置并重新瞄準飛機，直至飛機被擊落。Weiner–Radar,cont.HeconnectedaspecialradartThesystemimitatedhumanfunctionsandperformedthemmoreeffectively.這個系統(tǒng)模擬人的功能，并且比人更為有效。Wiener–RadarandHumanFactorImitationThesystemimitatedhumanfuncFeedback

反饋Theanti-aircraftgundemonstratesthecyberneticprincipleoffeedback.Feedbackisinformationabouttheresultsofaprocesswhichisusedtochangetheprocess.Theradarprovidedinformationaboutthechangesinlocationoftheenemyairplaneandthisinformationwasusedtocorrecttheaimingofthegun.高射防空炮運用了事理學中的反饋原理。反饋是有關(guān)過程結(jié)果的信息，這個結(jié)果反過來又被用來改變過程。雷達提供了敵人飛機的方位的變化信息來調(diào)節(jié)高射炮的瞄準。FeedbackFeedback

反饋Theanti-aircraftgAmorefamiliarexampleoftheuseoffeedbacktoregulateasystemisthecommonthermostatforheatingaroom.使用反饋來調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)的一個更為普遍的例子是供暖系統(tǒng)中的溫度計。Feedback–ThermostatAmorefamiliarexampleoftheRoomTemperatureRisesto700

房間溫度到了華氏70°Iftheheatingsystemisadjusted,asiscommon,toallowamaximumof2degreesvariation,whenthethermostatissetat68degreesthetemperaturewillriseto70degrees...如果供暖系統(tǒng)被調(diào)整為允許華氏2°的誤差時，當溫度計設(shè)定在華氏68°時，實際溫度會上升到華氏70°…ThermostatFeedbackExampleRoomTemperatureRisesto700

RoomTemperatureRisesto700

房間溫度上升到70°FurnaceTurnsOff

爐子關(guān)閉...beforeatemperaturesensorinthethermostattriggersthefurnacetoturnoff.這時候，溫度計中的感應(yīng)器才會把爐子關(guān)閉。ThermostatFeedbackExample,cont.RoomTemperatureRisesto700

RoomTemperatureRisesto700

房間溫度上升到華氏70°RoomTemperatureFallsto660

房間溫度下降到華氏66°FurnaceTurnsOff

爐子關(guān)閉Thefurnacewillremainoffuntilthetemperatureoftheroomhasfallento66degrees...爐子會一直關(guān)閉直到房間溫度低于66°…ThermostatFeedbackExample,cont.RoomTemperatureRisesto700

FurnaceTurns

On開RoomTemperatureRisesto700

到華氏70°FurnaceTurns

Off關(guān)RoomTemperatureFallsto660

低于華氏66°...thenthesensorinthethermostattriggersthefurnacetoturnonagain.…然后感應(yīng)器會再次啟動爐子ThermostatFeedbackExample,cont.FurnaceTurns

On開RoomTemperSelfRegulatingSystem

自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)Thesensorprovidesafeedbackloopofinformationthatallowsthesystemtodetectadifferencefromthedesiredtemperatureof68degreesandtomakeachangetocorrecttheerror.Aswiththeanti-aircraftgunandtheairplane,thissystem–consistingofthethermostat,theheaterandtheroom–issaidtoregulateitselfthroughfeedbackandisaself-regulatingsystem.感應(yīng)器提供了一個信息反饋環(huán)，使得系統(tǒng)能夠發(fā)覺到房間溫度與68°的理想溫度之間的差異，從而做出變動來改正錯誤。與高射炮與飛機一樣，這個系統(tǒng)包括了溫度調(diào)節(jié)計、供暖器與房間，被認為能夠通過反饋來調(diào)節(jié)自身，是一個自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)。SelfRegulatingSystemSelfRegulatingSystem

自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)Thehumanbodyisoneoftherichestsourcesofexamplesoffeedbackthatleadstotheregulationofasystem.Forexample,whenyourstomachisempty,informationispassedtoyourbrain.人類的身體是一個具有豐富的反饋系統(tǒng)的例子，能夠調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)。例如，你的胃空了的時候，信息被傳遞到你的大腦。HumanBody–FeedbackLeadingtoSystemRegulationThehumanbodyisoneoftherWhenyouhavetakencorrectiveaction,byeating,yourbrainissimilarlynotifiedthatyourstomachissatisfied.當你吃了東西，也就是做了正確的糾錯動作之后，你的大腦就類似于被通知說，你的胃已經(jīng)滿意了。Feedback–CorrectiveActionWhenyouhavetakencorrectiveTime時間StomachFeelsEmpty胃空了Person

Eats吃Stomach

FeelsFull飽了Inafewhours,theprocessstartsalloveragain.Thisfeedbackloopcontinuesthroughoutourlives.幾個小時后，這個過程會再次開始。這個反饋環(huán)貫穿我們一生。Feedback–HungerExampleTime時間StomachFeelsEmpty胃空了Thehumanbodyissuchamarvelofself-regulationthatearlycyberneticiansstudieditsprocessesanduseditasamodeltodesignmachinesthatwereself-regulating.Onefamousmachinecalledthehomeostatwasconstructedinthe1940sbyaBritishscientist,RossAshby.人類的身體是如此驚奇的一個自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)，早期的事理學家們研究其過程并將其作為設(shè)計自我調(diào)節(jié)機器的模型。內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)模擬器是一個非常有名的機器，是1940年代由英國的一個科學家叫做RossAshby的發(fā)明的。HumanBodyandCyberneticsStudiesThehumanbodyissuchamarveJustasthehumanbodymaintainsa98.6degreetemperaturethehomeostatcouldmaintainthesameelectricalcurrent,despitechangesfromtheoutside.就像人體保持華氏98.6°的體溫一樣，內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)模擬器能夠不受外界的影響而維持同樣的電流。HomeostatJustasthehumanbodymaintaiHomeostasis

內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)Thehomeostat,thehumanbeing,andthethermostatallaresaidtomaintainhomeostasisorequilibrium,throughfeedbackloopsofvariouskinds.Itdoesnotmatterhowtheinformationiscarried–justthattheregulatorisinformedofsomechangewhichcallsforsomekindofadaptivebehavior.內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)模擬器，人類，還有溫度計都是通過各種不同的反饋環(huán)在保持一個內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)或者平衡。信息怎么運載的并不重要，不過是調(diào)節(jié)器被通知有一些變化，需要做一些調(diào)整行為。Homeostasis

內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)Thehomeostat,Anotherscientist,GreyWalter,alsopursuedtheconceptofimitatingtheself-regulatingfeaturesofmanandanimals.另外一個科學家，GreyWalter，也研究了模擬人與動物的自我調(diào)節(jié)的概念。GreyWalter–SelfRegulatingManandAnimalsAnotherscientist,GreyWalterHisfavoriteprojectwasbuildingmechanical'tortoises'thatwould,likethislivetortoise,moveaboutfreelyandhavecertainattributesofanindependentlife.他最鐘愛的項目就是制造機器”烏龜“，它可以像這個活的真烏龜一樣可以自由走動，并且具有一個獨立生命體的某些特征。GreyWalter–MechanicalTortoisesHisfavoriteprojectwasbuildWalterispicturedherewithhiswifeVivian,theirsonTimothy,andElsiethetortoise.ElsiehasmuchincommonwithTimothy.JustasTimothyseeksoutfood,whichisstoredinhisbodyintheformoffat,Elsieseeksoutlightwhichshe'feeds'onandtransformsintoelectricalenergywhichchargesanaccumulatorinsideher.Thenshe'sreadyforanap,justlikeTimothyafterameal,inanareaofsoftlight.這是Walter與他妻子及兒子Timothy的照片，還有那個機器烏龜Elsie。Elsie與Timothy有許多相似之處。正如Timothy會尋找食物，然后在身體里以脂肪的形式儲存起來，Elsie會尋找光，并將光轉(zhuǎn)換成電能儲存在身體的蓄電池中。然后就像Timothy吃飯后要小憩一樣，Elsie也會在柔和的光亮處休息一會兒。GreyWalterandFamilyWalterispicturedherewithhAlthoughElsie'sbehaviorimitatesthatofahuman,heranatomyisverydifferent.ThisiswhatElsielookslikeunderneathhershell.盡管Elsie的行為是模擬人類的，她的構(gòu)造可完全不一樣。左圖的照片就是殼子下面她的構(gòu)造。TheAnatomyofElsieAlthoughElsie'sbehaviorimitShelooksalotmoreliketheinsideofatransistorradiothan...她更像是一個晶體管收音機的內(nèi)部構(gòu)造…SimulatingaHuman’sFunctionShelooksalotmorelikethe...theinsideofahumanbody.Butasacybernetician,Walterwasnotinterestedinimitatingthephysicalformofahumanbeing,butinsimulatingahuman'sfunctions.而不像一個人。但是作為一個事理學家，Walter的興趣并不在于模擬人類的身體形式，而是要模擬人類的功能。SimulatingaHuman’sFunction...theinsideofahumanbo

“WhatIsThisThing?”

這個東西是什么？

“WhatDoesitDo?”

它是做什么的？Cyberneticsdoesnotask...事理學家詢問的不是…...but...…而是…NotWhatIs,butWhatDoesitDo?

“WhatIsThisThing?”

這個東西是什GreyWalterdidnotattempttosimulatethephysicalformofahuman,asdoesasculptor,buttosimulatehumanfunctions.GreyWalter并不想像雕塑家一樣去模擬人的身體形態(tài)，而是要模仿人的行為功能。SimulatingHumanFunctionsGreyWalterdidnotattempttoNotasObjects,

并不是一個物體

Processes

一個過程Inotherwords,heviewedhumans..換句話說，他看人體…....butas...而是…NotObjects,butProcessesNotasObjects,

并不是一個物體

ProForcenturies,peoplehavedesignedmachinestohelpwithhumantasksandnotjusttasksrequiringmusclepower.幾個世紀以來，人類設(shè)計了幫助人們完成任務(wù)的機器，這些任務(wù)并不僅僅是用肌肉力量就可以完成的。圖為音樂木偶（像八音盒那樣的機器）。DesignstoHelpwithHumanTasksForcenturies,peoplehavedesAutomata,suchasthelittlemovingfiguresofpeopleoranimalsthatemergefromcuckooclocksandmusicboxes,werepopularinthe1700'sandmachinescapableofthinkingwereasubjectforspeculationlongbeforetheelectroniccomputerwasinvented.像報時的布谷鳥鐘與八音盒這樣的模擬人或動物行為的自動控制在1700年代很流行，能夠思考的機器早在電腦發(fā)明前很久就一直是人類所向往的。AutomataAutomata,suchasthelittlemMacyFoundationMeetings

1946–1953

梅西會議From1946to1953therewasaseriesofmeetingstodiscussfeedbackloopsandcircularcausalityinself-regulatingsystems.1946到1953，有一系列的會議在討論自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)中的反饋環(huán)與循環(huán)因果關(guān)系。Themeetings,sponsoredbytheJosiahMacy,Jr.Foundation,wereinterdisciplinary,attendedbyengineers,mathematicians,neurophysiologists,andothers.由梅西基金會贊助的會議是一個跨學科會議，集中了工程師、數(shù)學家、神經(jīng)生理學家以及其他許多領(lǐng)域的專家。MacyFoundationMeetingsMacyFoundationMeetings

1946Thechairmanofthesemeetings,WarrenMcCulloch,wrotethatthesescientistshadgreatdifficultyunderstandingeachother,becauseeachhadhisorherownprofessionallanguage.這些會議的主席，WarrenMcCulloch，寫道這些科學家很難彼此理解，因為每個人都在用自己的專業(yè)語言。ProfessionalsSpeakDifferentLanguagesThechairmanofthesemeetingsTherewereheatedargumentsthatweresoexcitingthatMargaretMead,whowasinattendance,oncedidnotevennoticethatshehadbrokenatoothuntilafterthemeeting.會議的討論非常激烈，以至于MargaretMead在一次會議之后才發(fā)現(xiàn)她在會上把自己的一顆牙咬壞了。MargaretMeadBreaksAToothTherewereheatedargumentsthThelatermeetingswentsomewhatmorecalmlyasthemembersdevelopedacommonsetofexperiences.后來的會議就較為平和了，因為大家有了一系列共同的經(jīng)驗，語言趨同一致，可以互相理解了。MeetingsCalmwithCommonExperiencesThelatermeetingswentsomewhThesemeetings,alongwiththe1948publicationofNorbertWiener'sbooktitled'Cybernetics,'servedtolaythegroundworkforthedevelopmentofcyberneticsasweknowittoday.這些會議，與1948年NorbertWiener的《事理學》一書一起，奠定了我們今天所知的事理學的基礎(chǔ)。LayingtheGroundworkforCyberneticsThesemeetings,alongwiththeHereisaphotographtakeninthe1950softhefourprominentearlycyberneticiansthatyouhavealreadymet.Fromlefttorighttheyare:RossAshbyofhomeostatfame;WarrenMcCulloch,organizeroftheMacyFoundationmeetings;GreyWalter,creatorofElsie,thetortoise;andNorbertWiener,whosuggestedthatthefieldbecalled‘Cybernetics.'下圖為1950年代拍攝的4位著名的事理學家。從左至右為：內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)模擬器的RossAshby，梅西會議的組織者WarrenMcCulloch，烏龜Elsie的創(chuàng)造者GreyWalter，及將學科名稱建議為事理學的NorbertWiener。ProminentEarlyCyberneticiansHereisaphotographtakeninNeurophysiology神經(jīng)生理學

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Mathematics數(shù)學

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Philosophy哲學WarrenMcCullochwasakeyfigureinenlargingthescopeofcybernetics.Althoughapsychiatristbytraining,McCullochcombinedhisknowledgeofneurophysiology,mathematics,andphilosophytobetterunderstandaverycomplexsystem...WarrenMcCulloch是擴大事理學范疇上的一位重要人物。作為一位經(jīng)過訓練的精神病專家，他將自己在神經(jīng)生理學、數(shù)學與物理的知識結(jié)合起來以更好地理解復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)。Neurophysiology,Mathematics,andPhilosophyNeurophysiology神經(jīng)生理學

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Mathem

...thehumannervoussystem.…和人類的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)。TheHumanNervousSystem...thehumannervoussysteHebelievedthatthefunctioningofthenervoussystemcouldbedescribedinthepreciselanguageofmathematics.他相信神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的功能能夠用非常精確的數(shù)學語言來描述。HumanNervousSystemandMathematicalEquationsHebelievedthatthefunctioniForexample,hedevelopedanequationwhichexplainedthefactthatwhenacoldobjectsuchasanicecubetouchestheskinforabriefinstant,paradoxicallyitgivesthesensationofheatratherthancold.例如，他開發(fā)出一個方程式，用來解釋了這樣一個事實，就是當一個冰塊在短暫的時間內(nèi)碰觸到皮膚的時候，皮膚會很荒謬地感覺到熱而不是冷。Cold=HotForexample,hedevelopedaneNeurophysiology神經(jīng)生理學

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Mathematics數(shù)學

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Philosophy哲學McCullochusednotonlymathematicsandneurophysiologytounderstandthenervoussystembutalsophilosophy–ararecombination.Scientistsandphilosophersareoftenconsideredmilesapartintheirinterests–scientistsstudyreal,concrete,...WarrenMcCulloch不僅用數(shù)學與神經(jīng)生理學來理解神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)，他還用到了哲學，這是一種很少見的組合?？茖W家與哲學家通常被認為是風馬牛不相及的學科，科學家研究真實的、具體的…Neurophysiology,MathematicsandPhilosophyNeurophysiology神經(jīng)生理學

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Mathe

...physicalthings,likeplants,...…物質(zhì)的事物，例如植物…Plants...physicalthings,likep

...animals,..…動物….Animals...animals,..Animals...andminerals,whilephilosophers,..…礦石，而哲學家們….Minerals...andminerals,whilephil...studyabstractthingslikeideas,thoughts,andconcepts.…研究的是抽象的東西，像想法、思想以及概念。AbstractIdeas,Thoughts,andConcepts...studyabstractthingsliEpistemology=StudyofKnowledge

認識論＝知識的學習McCullochcouldseethatthereisaconnectionbetweenthescienceofneurophysiologyandabranchofphilosophycalledepistemology,whichisthestudyofknowledge.WarrenMcCulloch能夠發(fā)現(xiàn)在作為科學的神經(jīng)生理學與哲學的一個分枝——認識論，也就是知識的學習——之間有一種聯(lián)系。Epistemology=StudyofKnowledgeEpistemology=StudyofKnowleWhileknowledgeisusuallyconsideredinvisibleandabstract,McCullochrealizedthatknowledgeisformedinaphysicalorganofthebody,thebrain.…而知識通常被認為是不可見的，是抽象的，WarrenMcCulloch認識到知識是在人體的一個物理器官中形成的，即大腦。Knowledge–FormedintheBrainWhileknowledgeisusuallycon

Physical

Abstract

物質(zhì)的 抽象的

BrainMind Knowledge

大腦 心靈 知識Themindis,infact,themeetingplacebetweenthebrainandanidea,betweenthephysicalandtheabstract,betweenscienceandphilosophy.心靈事實上是大腦與想法、物質(zhì)的與抽象的，科學與哲學的交匯處。TheMind–TheMeetingPlaceBetweentheBrainandanIdea Physical Abstract

物質(zhì)的 抽Philosophical哲學的Physical物理的ExperimentalEpistemology實驗認識論McCullochfoundedanewfieldofstudybasedonthisintersectionofthephysicalandthephilosophical.Thisfieldofstudyhecalled'experimentalepistemology,'thestudyofknowledgethroughneurophysiology.Thegoalwastoexplainhowtheactivityofanervenetworkresultsinwhatweexperienceasfeelingsandideas.McCulloch根據(jù)自己對物理與哲學交集的研究建立了一個新的領(lǐng)域。他將此稱為”實驗認識論“，用神經(jīng)生理學來研究知識。目的在于要解釋神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的活動是怎樣產(chǎn)生我們所體驗的感覺與想法的。ExperimentalEpistemologyPhilosophicalPhysicalExperimenCybernetics=RegulationofSystems

事理學＝系統(tǒng)的調(diào)節(jié)WhyisMcCulloch'sworksoimportanttocyberneticians?Remember,cyberneticsisthescienceoftheregulationofsystems.McCulloch的工作為什么對事理學這么重要呢？要記住，事理學是系統(tǒng)的調(diào)節(jié)的科學。Cybernetics=RegulationofSystemsCybernetics=RegulationofSyThehumanbrainisperhapsthemostremarkableregulatorofall,regulatingthehumanbodyaswellasmanyothersystemsinitsenvironment.Atheoryofhowthebrainoperatesisatheoryofhowallofhumanknowledgeisgenerated.人類的大腦大概是所有的東西中最為非凡的調(diào)節(jié)器，調(diào)節(jié)著人的身體以及在自己環(huán)境中的許多其他系統(tǒng)。大腦是怎么運作的理論就是人類的知識是怎樣產(chǎn)生出來的理論。HumanBrain–TheMostRemarkableRegulatorofAllThehumanbrainisperhapstheWhereasananti-aircraftgunandathermostataredevicesconstructedbypeopletoregulatecertainsystems,themindisasystemthatconstructsitselfandregulatesitself.Weshallsaymoreaboutthisphenomenoninafewminutes.高射防空炮與溫度計是人造出來調(diào)節(jié)某些系統(tǒng)的，心靈是一個創(chuàng)立自己并調(diào)節(jié)自己的系統(tǒng)。我們馬上就會更多地加以介紹。Mind–RegulatesItselfWhereasananti-aircraftgunaOtherConceptsinCybernetics

事理學的其他概念Nowthatwehavetouchedonsomeofthekeypeople,theirinterests,andtheircontributions,weshalllookatafewadditionalconceptsincybernetics.我們介紹了一些主要人物、他們的興趣及他們的貢獻，我們還要看一些更多的概念。OtherCyberneticConceptsOtherConceptsinCybernetics

LawofRequisiteVariety

必要變異度定律Oneimportantconceptisthelawofrequisitevariety.Thislawstatesthatasasystembecomesmorecomplex,thecontrollerofthatsystemmustalsobecomemorecomplex,becausetherearemorefunctionstoregulate.Inotherwords,themorecomplexthesystemthatisbeingregulated,themorecomplextheregulatorofthesystemmustbe.一個重要的概念就是必要變異度定律。當一個系統(tǒng)變得越來越復(fù)雜的時候，系統(tǒng)的控制者一定也要變得更為復(fù)雜，因為有更多的功能需要調(diào)節(jié)。換言之，要調(diào)節(jié)的系統(tǒng)越復(fù)雜，系統(tǒng)的調(diào)節(jié)者就必須越復(fù)雜。LawofRequisiteVarietyLawofRequisiteVariety

必要變異度Let'sreturntoourexampleofathermostat.回到溫度計的例子。ThermostatExample,RevisitedLet'sreturntoourexampleofIfahousehasonlyafurnace,thethermostatcanbequitesimple–sinceitcontrolsonlythefurnace.如果屋子只有爐子，那溫度計就可以相對簡單，因為它只要控制爐子就行了。Furnace=SimplicityIfahousehasonlyafurnace,However,ifthehousehasbothafurnaceandanairconditioner,thethermostatmustbemorecomplex–itwillhavemoreswitches,knobs,orbuttons–sinceitmustcontroltwoprocesses–bothheatingandcooling.如果房子里既有爐子也有空調(diào)，溫度計就會更復(fù)雜些，更多的開關(guān)、按鈕，因為它必須控制加熱和制冷兩個過程。Furnace+AirConditioner=ComplexityHowever,ifthehousehasbothThesameprincipleappliestolivingorganisms.Humanbeingshavethemostcomplexnervoussystemandbrainofanyoftheanimals.Thisallowsthemtoengageinmanydifferentactivitiesandtohavecomplexbodies.同樣的原理適用于活器官。人類具備任何一種動物中最為復(fù)雜的神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)與大腦。這使得人能夠從事許多不同的活動，具備復(fù)雜的身體。Humans–MostComplexNervousSystemThesameprincipleappliestoIncontrast,someanimalssuchasthestarfish,...相反，某些動物，例如海星…StarfishSystemIncontrast,someanimalssuch...seacucumber,...海參…SeaCucumberSystem...seacucumber,...海參…S

...andseaanemonehavenocentralizedbrain,butonlyasimplenervenetwork,whichisallthatisrequiredtoregulatethesimplerbodiesandfunctionsoftheseseaanimals.Insummary,themorecomplextheanimal,themorecomplexthebrainneedstobe.…還有?？蜎]有中心大腦，而只有簡單的神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，要調(diào)節(jié)簡單的身體及這些海洋生物的功能，有這些就足夠了。總而言之，生物體越復(fù)雜，大腦就需要越復(fù)雜。MoreComplextheAnimal,theMorecomplextheBrain...andseaanemonehavenoThelawofrequisitevarietynotonlyappliestocontrollingmachinesandhumanbodies,buttosocialsystemsaswell.Forexample,inordertocontrolcrime,itisnotnecessaryorfeasibletohaveonepolicemanforeachcitizen,becausenotallactivitiesofcitizensneedregulation...必要變異度定律不只可運用于控制機器和人體，還可用于社會系統(tǒng)。例如，為了控制犯罪，不需要也不可能警察與公民的比例為1：1，因為警察并不需要管公民的所有活動。SocialSystemsThelawofrequisitevarietyn...justillegalones.Therefore,oneortwopoliceforeverythousandpeoplegenerallyprovidesthenecessarycapabilityforregulatingillegalactivities.…警察只需要管違法的行為就可以了。因此，每1000個公民有1－2名警察就可以控制違法行為了。CapabilitytoRegulate...justillegalones.ThereInthiscaseamatchbetweenthevarietyintheregulatorandthevarietyinthesystembeingregulatedisachievednotbyincreasingthecomplexityoftheregulator,butbyreducingthevarietyinthesystembeingregulated.Thatis,ratherthanhiringmanypolicemen,wesimplydecidetoregulatefeweraspectsofhumanbehavior.在這個例子中，調(diào)節(jié)者與被調(diào)節(jié)的系統(tǒng)之間的相互吻合不僅在于增加了調(diào)節(jié)者的復(fù)雜度，而且在于減少了被調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)的復(fù)雜度。也就是說，我們不需要增加警察的數(shù)量，只要決定少量的需要管理的人的行為就可以了。Regulation–IncreaseComplexityofRegulatorandSystembeingRegulatedInthiscaseamatchbetweentSelfOrganizingSystems

自組織系統(tǒng)Theself-organizingsystemisanothercyberneticconcept,whichweallseedemonstrateddaily.Aself-organizingsystemisasystemthatbecomesmoreorganizedasitgoestowardequilibrium.RossAshbyobservedthateverysystemwhoseinternalprocessesorinteractionrulesdonotchangeisaself-organizingsystem.自組織系統(tǒng)是另一個事理學概念，我們每天都可以看到。一個自組織系統(tǒng)就是一個在走向平衡的過程中更有組織的系統(tǒng)。RossAshby觀察到每一個系統(tǒng)，只要它的內(nèi)在過程或者互動規(guī)律沒有變化，這個系統(tǒng)就是一個自組織系統(tǒng)。SelfOrganizingSystemsSelfOrganizingSystems

自組織系統(tǒng)TForexample,adisorganizedgroupofpeoplewhoarewaiting...例如，一群散亂地站著在等車的人…WaitinginLineForexample,adisorganizedgr...totakeabuswillfallintoaline,becauseoftheirpastexperiencethatlinesareapractical,fairwaytoobtainservice.Thesepeopleconstituteaself-organizingsystem.…車來了，他們會自動排隊，因為過去的經(jīng)驗告訴他們排隊是一個讓大家得到服務(wù)的實用而公平的方式。這些人就組成了一個自組織系統(tǒng)。TheLine–ASelf-OrganizingSystem...totakeabuswillfallEvenamixtureofsaladoilandvinegarisaself-organizingsystem.Asaresultofbeingshakenasshownhere,themixturechangestoahomogeneousliquid–temporarily.即使一瓶混合的沙拉油也是一個自組織系統(tǒng)。搖動一會兒后，這瓶油暫時就混合成一種穩(wěn)定的液體了。OilandVinegar–aSelf-OrganizingSystemEvenamixtureofsaladoilanAsthesaladdressingisallowedtogotoequilibrium,themixturechangesitsstructureandtheoilandvinegarseparateautomatically.Wecouldsaythatthemixtureorganizesitself.當沙拉油趨于平衡后，混合液體的結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生了變化，油醋自動分離。我們說混合液體組織了自身。OilandVinegar-EquilibriumAsthesaladdressingisallowTheideaofself-organizationleadstoageneraldesignrule.Inordertochangeanyobject,puttheobjectinanenvironmentwheretheinteractionbetweentheobjectandtheenvironmentchangestheobjectinthedirectionyouwantittogo.Let'sconsiderthreeexamples...自組織原理導致了一個普遍的設(shè)計原理。為了改變一個物體，將物體放入到一個環(huán)境中，其中物體與環(huán)境的互動改變物體，成為你所想要的。我們來看三個例子…SelfOrganizationLeadstoaGeneralDesignRuleTheideaofself-organizationFirst,inordertomakeironfromironoreweputtheironoreinanenvironmentcalledablastfurnace.Inthefurnace,cokeisburnedtoproduceheat.Inthechemicalandthermodynamicenvironmentoftheblastfurnace,ironoxidesbecomepureiron.第一個，為了從鐵礦中分離出鐵，我們把鐵礦放置在高爐中，其中煤被燃燒產(chǎn)生熱。在高爐這個化學和熱力的環(huán)境中，鐵礦氧化物變成了純鐵。SelfOrganizationLeadstoaGeneralDesignRuleFirst,inordertomakeironfAsasecondexampleconsidertheprocessofeducatingachild.Thechildisplacedinaschool.第二個例子，對孩子的教育。孩子在學校中。EducatingChildrenAsasecondexampleconsidertAsaresultofinteractingwithteachersandotherstudentsintheschool,thechildlearnstoreadandwrite.作為老師與其他學生在學?；拥慕Y(jié)果，孩子學會了讀和寫。EducatingChildren,cont.AsaresultofinteractingwitAthirdexampleistheregulationofbusinessbygovernment.ToregulatetheiraffairsthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesadoptedaConstitutionthatestablishedthreebranchesofgovernment.Bypassinglaws,CongresscreatesanenvironmentoftaxincentivesandlegalpenaltieswhichareenforcedbytheExecutiveBranch.第三個例子。政府對商人的管理。美國人用憲法建立了三權(quán)分立的機制。要通過法律的話，議會要建立一個由政府強迫的具備稅收優(yōu)惠與法律懲罰的環(huán)境。RegulationofBusinessbyGovernmentAthirdexampleistheregulatTheseincentivesandpenalties,whichareadjudicatedbythecourts,encouragebusinessmento