語言學(xué)知識點整理

第一單元Whatislinguistics?什么是語言學(xué)？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Thescopeoflinguist:語￥言學(xué)研究的范疇Phonetics語音學(xué)\Phonology音系學(xué)\Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)\Syntax句法學(xué)\Semantics語義學(xué)\Pragmatics語用學(xué)\Sociolinguisti社會語言學(xué)'Psycholinguistics理語言學(xué)\Appliedlinguist應(yīng)用語言學(xué)

Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedon“high”writtenlangua2.Synchronicvs.diachron共c時性與歷史性ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstInmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachrstudy.3.Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語SpeechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticsstudyforthefolPhonetics語音學(xué)：thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticreasons-(1)speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolutioncommunication"dtotheestabHshmentofabranchofHnguistic^)alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechtaninwritingcalledphonetics(3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguagePhonology音系學(xué):aslinguistbecameinterestedinhowsoundsputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication,theydevelopedanotherbranchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.

Languageandparole語言與言語LanguagereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersspeechcommunityParolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuseMorphology形態(tài)學(xué):thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsm、—Competenceandperformance能力與運用languagearearrangedformwordshasconstitutedthebranch°fstudycalChdmskydefinescompetenceastheidealusers’knowledgeoftherulesofhPerformance:theactualrealizationlanguagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommuniSyntax句法學(xué):thecombinationofthesewordstoformpermissiblewordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustratiofthearbitrarySocioHnguisti社b會語言學(xué).thestudyofal]thesesocialaspectso^tureoflanguage.Thisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebran^ustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare’splay“Rosentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules,thstudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchLofguisticsstudiesSemantics語義學(xué):thestudyofmeaningwasgraduallydevelopedandbecameknownassemanticsPragmatics語用學(xué):whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolaion,buinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmaticscalledsociolinguisticsPsycholinguistic理語言學(xué)：Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudylanguagetopsychology

Whatislanguage?什么是語言？LanguageisasystemwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustratiofthearbitrarySocioHnguisti社b會語言學(xué).thestudyofal]thesesocialaspectso^tureoflanguage.Thisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebran^ustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare’splay“Ro\Applied\Appliedlinguistic應(yīng)用語言學(xué):findingsinlinguististudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsasrecoveryofspeechability.thestudyofsuchapplicationsisknownasappliedlinguisticsOtherrelatedbranchsincludeanthropologicallinguistics,neurologicaHinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputationallinguistics.Someimportantdistinctionsinlingui人類學(xué)/神經(jīng)語言學(xué)/數(shù)理語言學(xué)/計算語言學(xué)1.PrescriptivevsDescrip規(guī)i定e性與描述性Descriptivealinguistictudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescritpive:itaimslaydownrulesfor“correct”.behaviorModernlinguisticsisdescriptive;itsinvestigationsarebasedonmainlyspokendata.Designfeaturesoflanguage言的甄別特彳正AfricanlinguistCharlesHockettspecified12designfeatures:geqgra^-bitrarines武斷性productivity造性duality^重性displacement移位性culturaltransmissions傳遞性單元二Twomajormediaofcommunication:speechandwritingThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguistisctudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數(shù)目有限的一組語音構(gòu)成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學(xué)：isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoauthentiqanglkage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Threebranchesofphonetics:articulatoryhonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué)(mosthighlydeveloped),auditoryphonetics聽覺語音學(xué)andacousticphonetic聲學(xué)語音學(xué)Articulationphoneti發(fā)音語音學(xué))：Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgansarticulatethesounds.Auditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學(xué))：Howahearerperceivesthesounds.Acoustic聲學(xué)語音學(xué)):Howthesoundsaretransmitter

constantsThebasicdifferencebetweenavowelandaconstantisthatinpronunciationoftheformertheairthatcomesfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,themouth,whileinthatofthelatteritisobstructedinoneanother.Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairsteamatsomepointofConsonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairsteamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Vowels:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoThepharyngealcavit咽腔thethroatTheoralcavit口腔themouthThenasalcavit鼻腔thenoseVibrationofthevocalcord聲帶)resultsiaiqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voici濁”，whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonants輔音。

articulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.ClassificationofEnglishconstants單詞補充：01)velum:The單詞補充：01)velum:Thesoftpalat軟腭Classificationintwoways:intermsofmannerof04)vocalcord聲帶，-05)membrane:n.Athin,pliablelayeroftissuecoveringsurfacesorseparating02)uvula:AsmaU,conica],fleshymassoftissuesuspendedfromthecente^apficulation:stopsfricatives,affricates,nasals04)vocalcord聲帶，-05)membrane:n.Athin,pliablelayeroftissuecoveringsurfacesorseparatingorconnectingregions,structures,ororgansofananimalor膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結(jié)構(gòu)或動植物器官06)thesoftpalat軟腭07)thehardpalateS更腭08)theteethridg齒齦09)alveolus:Atoothsocketinthejawb牙槽顎骨處的牙床theteeth牙齒thelips上下唇bladeoftongue舌面backoftongue舌根pharyngealcavity因腔nasalcavity鼻月空velar:ArticulateaHththebackofthetonguetouchingornearthesoftpalate,as(g)ingoodand(k)i軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地

ClassificationofEnglishvowels:thepositionofthetongueinthem舌t位高低(classificationof3groups:front,central,andback):theopennessofthemouth,口的張開程度(classificatioif4groups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels):theshapeofthel園唇與否(roundedornotrounded):lengthofthevowels元音的長度(longvowelsandshortvowels,correspondingtothedistinctionoftenseandlaxvowels發(fā)音的，如在good中的(g)以及在cup中的(k)thetipofthetongt舌尖theupperfrontteet上齒theroofofthemoutht顎thelowerli下唇InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)Thevowels(monophthongsanddiphthongs)元音(單元音&雙元音)Theconstants輔音Broadtranscriptiontranscriptioiwithletter-symbolsonly.(indictionariesandteachingtextbooks)用一個符號來表示一個語音的標(biāo)音方式叫做寬式標(biāo)音法，這種音標(biāo)法常見于詞典和教科書。Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacritics.但實際上，同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同，比如Pit和spit中的/P/g發(fā)音就不一樣。在寬式標(biāo)音的基礎(chǔ)上，再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標(biāo)音法叫做窄式標(biāo)音法。ClassificationofEnglishspeechs（英語語音的分類vowelsand

Phonologyandphonetics音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)botharethestudiesofspeechsounds.Itisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalPhoneticsisofageneralnature;itItisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.語音學(xué)研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進(jìn)行描述和分類。Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系學(xué)研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達(dá)意義作用。Phone，phonemeandallophone語音，音位，音位變體morphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則，有屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)兩大分支Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflangua語素：語言最小的意義單位FreeMorpheme:Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(independent)Freemorphemes:areindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.Forexample:Phones,whichcanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweuseboy.whenspeakingalanguage.BoundMorpheme:AboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyPhonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishitself.著語素必須和其他語素結(jié)合成單詞cannotbeusedmeaning.independentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,Thedifferentwhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphonetiadtherfreeorbound,toformaword.environmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Roots:Arootisoftenseenasapartofaword,itcanneversPhonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairbyitselfilthoughitbearscleardefinitemeaning;itmustbe音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對combinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Suchrooropeandrobethat/P/and/b/canoccurinthesameenvironmentrenumerousinEnglishforexample:"g“o-earsthemeaningoftheInflectionalaffixes:manifesttheInflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumb,ertense,degree,andcase.affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional2)Derivationalaffix派s生詞綴)Derivationalaffixes:areaddedt(anexistingformtocreateaword.Suchawayofword-formationBcallbldiderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscallderivative.A)prefix:Aprefixcomesbeforewords.andtheydistinguishmeaning;thereforetheyareinphonemiccontrast.可以出現(xiàn)在不同語音組合中的同一為止，產(chǎn)生意義差別。/P/and/Ph/thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidbeincomplementarydistribution.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforsoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,twowordsaresaidtoformaminimal.pairen]and[ben]最小對立對指出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Somerulesinphonolog幾條音系規(guī)則Sequentialrule序列規(guī)則:blik,klib,bilk,kilbispossible.ilbk,bkil,ilkbnotpossible.Assimilatioirules同化規(guī)則(onesoundtoanotherby“copying^“theearth”.Whenitcombineswithanother-adoogy”meaning“abranchoflearning”wegottheword“geology^hichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructuretoBoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:(1)root(2)Af詞巍di)eInflectionaliffixes(屈折詞綴)(inflectionaiiorphemes):featureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakethetwoph()nessimildB)suffixthatisaddedtothest;entheymodifythemeaningofDeletionrule省略規(guī)則(ittelluswhenasoundistobedeletedtheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.althoughitisorthographicallyrepreSigheddesign,thereisno{g}sound./Signature,designationthe{g}ispronounced./DeletRootandstem(詞根和詞干)(本書末涉及)[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconstant.1)Root2)StemSuprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccuraboveThedifferencesbetweenrootandstem:thelevelofthesegment切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalthemainsuprasegmentalfeaturesare:stress,tone,intonUtion.withouttotallossofidentity.切分特彳正音，聲調(diào)，語調(diào)Astemisthesurpluspartafterthecuttingofinflectional第三單元Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiesthemorphemeinawordwithinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurtherinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareanalyzed,itsometimescouldbearoot.IndividualisticUndesirablesIndividualist(stem)undesirable(stem)Individual(stem)desirable(stem)dividual(stem)desire(root,stem)divide(root,stem)Affixatio詞綴法(Derivation派生法)：addingword-formationorderivationalaffixestostem.Prefixati。前綴@:It'stheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaprefixestostems.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword,modifythemeaningthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構(gòu)成。謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構(gòu)成。Thereferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsu主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。Subjectalllanguagehavewaysofreferrisomeentity,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,orareferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.AsubjectnounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepTypesofsentence句子的類型Thesimplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsofsubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsen簡單be.句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子Thecoordinatesentenceorcompoundsentence:containstwoSuffixesattheendofaword,areaddedtotheendofstems.TheJyiusesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconj^u^ctiomodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschange列句含由連接詞串聯(lián)起來的兩個句子成分itspartofspeech.Compounding復(fù)合法(alsocalledcompositionCompounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.CompoundingispopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,derivationcanbeviewedadtheadditionofaffixestostemsnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.Featuresofcompoundsl.orthographicall拼寫特征)：acompoundcanbewrittenasoneThecomplexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheo.therThetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother復(fù)合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成，其中之一為主要子句，其余為從屬子句。acomplexsentencecontainstotfcrmormore,clauses,onewhichisincorporatedinto.anothteris,thetwoclausesincomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onsubordinatingtheoth.erTheincorporated,orsubordinated,clausisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhicisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.withorwithoutahyphen,orastwoseparatewords.Forexample:Someconclusionscanbedrawnfromthecomplexsentence.l.anarmchairfollow-up,thunderbird.embeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixsyntactical句法特征)：thepartofspeechofthecompoundisembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledagenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelementsubordinatorsuchas“that”，”if”.3.anembeddedclausemayForexample:ice-cold(adj.)greenhouse(noun).functionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandssematicall(語意特征)：themeaningofacompoundisoftenindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitformchanges.idiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample:ablacklegisnotaleg^anguageisahighlystructuredsystemofcommunication.thatisblack,itmeanscheaterSentencesarenotformedbyrandomly(隨意)combininglexicalphonetical(寸語音特征)：thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsontems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangethefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarylinguisticelementsinaparticularordertomakeastringofwstress.notonlymeaningfulbutalsolinearly-and單元四Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesenthneearchically-structur線形結(jié)構(gòu)和層次結(jié)構(gòu))structureoflanguage.Thelinerandhierarchicalstructureofsente句子的線性排列Asamajorcomponentofgrammar,syntaxconsistsofasetof與層次結(jié)構(gòu)abstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordsTh?linerwordorderofasentence:whenasentenceisutteredformgrammaticalsentences.writtendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafter句法是一個由一套數(shù)量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。anotherinsequence句子的線性排列，句子無論就其口頭或書面表Normallyasentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectanditspredicate看，所含的次都按線性次序排列。（表面上的排列）

Thehierarchicalstructureofasentesentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphrase(NP),orverbphrase(VP),groupedtogetfie子的結(jié)構(gòu)是一種由名伺伺組和動伺伺組等句法成分單位構(gòu)成的層次性結(jié)構(gòu)。treediagramofsentencestructureThepointsatwhichthetreebranchesatvariouslevelsarebranchingnodes.(分節(jié)點)Syntacticcategories法類型A(PP)(S)PPPNPXP???.XX-bar:ageneralThehierarchicalstructureofasentesentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphrase(NP),orverbphrase(VP),groupedtogetfie子的結(jié)構(gòu)是一種由名伺伺組和動伺伺組等句法成分單位構(gòu)成的層次性結(jié)構(gòu)。treediagramofsentencestructureThepointsatwhichthetreebranchesatvariouslevelsarebranchingnodes.(分節(jié)點)Syntacticcategories法類型traditonallcalledtransformational轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則］.NP-movementandWH-movementWordsandphrasesareorganizedaccordingtothesyntacticNP-movementoccurwhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothecategoriestheybelongto.passivevoice.Lexicalcategorie詞類WH-movementisobligator強制性的］inEnglishwhichchangesasentencdMajorLexicalCategorijes要伺類fromaffirmativetointerrogative.Noun(N)\Verb(V)\Adjective(Adj)\Adverb(Adv名詞、動詞、形容詞、AUX-movement,themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentence-initial副伺MinorLexicalCategoriesposition,suchabe”have”do”wil”“an”and“hould”D-structureandS-structureDeterminer(Det)\Auxiliary(Aux)\Preposition(Prep)\Pronoun(Pron)\Asentencdmayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.副伺MinorLexicalCategoriesConjunction(Conj)\Interjection(眼定伺、助動伺、介伺、代名伺、連接伺、感嘆伺Phrasalcategories)組類Nounphrase(NP)\Verbphrase(VP)\Prepositionalphrase(PP)\Adjectivephrase(AP)名伺短語、動伺短語、介伺短語、形容伺短語Grammaticalrelation語法關(guān)系Ourlinguistiknowledgeincludesanawarenessofadistinctionbetweenthestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituentscalledgrammaticalrelations.語法關(guān)系是指句子中名伺伺組與動伺的關(guān)系，其中涉及到主語和賓語的結(jié)構(gòu)性和邏輯性。Thestructuralsubjectandthestructuralo結(jié)構(gòu)主語與結(jié)構(gòu)賓語movementtakesplace,namedD-structure(orthedeepstructur層結(jié)構(gòu)］),theotheroccursaftermovementtakesplacenamedS-structure(roughlymeaningthesurfacesturctu表層結(jié)構(gòu)］)Transformational-generativelineofanalysis:itisbelievedthatphrasestruleswiththeinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicatioiofsynatcticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-sturcture.phrasestructurerules+thelexicon>D-structur->movementrules>S-structureGeneralgrammar:asystemoflinguistiknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguage.Movea：Ageneralmovementruleaccountingrfcthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Thelogicsubject(thedoeroftheaction)andthelogicalobjectg(t(heilmovementruleMovea(ormoveAlpha)ismovecertainconstituentrecipientoftheaction)邏輯主語(行動的執(zhí)行者)與邏輯賓語(行動的接受者)Combinationalrule組合規(guī)則Phrasestructurerul(rewriteru)e短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則是一組句法重寫規(guī)則。NP—DetN(a/theman)NPDetAdjNPPS(thetallmanwithglassesthatImet)TherecursivenessofPhrasestructurer短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的循環(huán)性Theserulescangenerateaninfinitnumberofsentences,andtocertainplace.GeneralprinciplesofUniversalGrammaresuchprinciple,orconditon,isthcasecondition格條件］.Asisrequiredbythecaseconditonprinciple,naunphrasemusthavecaseandcaseisassignedbyV(verb)orP(preposition)toobjectposition,orbyAUX(auxiliary)tothesubjectposition.AnotherconditioniswhatisknownastheAdjacencyconditionft鄰條件］oncaseassignment,whichstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshostayadjacenttoeachot.herTheparametersofUniversalGrammarAdjacencyparameter毗鄰參數(shù)］:UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalues［+strictadjacency］and［-短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則，短語和句子可以無限循環(huán)地組合起來。NP~k(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)~VPV(NP)(PP)(S)sentencewithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursivep根短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則，短語和句子可以無限循環(huán)地組合起來。NP~k(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)~VPV(NP)(PP)(S)AnotherparametertheonethatinvolveswordordencernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalitparameter.方位參數(shù)］TwoAPdirectionalityvalues[rightwarddirect；左向Wyhd[leftwarddirectionality[①。ialectalsynonyms地域性同義詞）synonymsusedindifferent右向位。regionaldialectsThesearewordswithmoreorlessthesame17、linguisticcompetence：ComskydefinescompetenceastheidealUsermeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.Suchas:Americanknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalitparameter.方位參數(shù)］Twothisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.②Stylistisynonyms（文體同義詞）synonymsdifferingnstyle.18、sentence:AsentenceisastructurallyndependentunitthatusuallyWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofcomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorformalityf'C節(jié)）.Suchas：o]dman,daddy,fathercommand.③mand.19、transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationa④collocationalsynonym搭配上的區(qū)別）rules.Theoperationofthetransformationatulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.單元五Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:Thenamingtheory.Oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thewordsusedinlanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor⑤semanticallydifferentsynonyms（語意上的差別）。Surpriseandamazepolysemy（多義）：referstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameoisimilameaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Forexample:table1apieceoffurniture2allthepeseatedatatable3thefoodthatisputonatable….$.homonymy（同音異意，同形異意）:homonymyreferstothephenomenon（現(xiàn)象）thatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavetheTheconceptualistvi意念論）：washoldsthatthereisnodirecstameform,i.e.differentwordsareidentical]的）insoundorlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto（i.e.,betwipailing,orinboth.languageandtherealworld）;rathertheinterpretati解釋）ofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsthemind.ThisviewissuggestedbyOgdenandRichards.Contextualism語境論）：contextualismisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderive推導(dǎo)）meaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservable可觀測的）contexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized,thesituationaclontextandthelinguisticcontext.Behaviorism^行為主義論）：behaviorismreferstotheatte企pt（Homophones（同音異意）：refertotwowordsareidenticalinsouncine.g.rain/reignHomographs（同形異意）：refertotwowordareidenticalinspellie.g.tearn./tearv.hyponymy（上下關(guān)系）：referstothesenserelatingbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,themorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.antonymy:refertotwowordsareoppositeinmeaning圖）todefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationiii.Gradableantonymysii.Complementaryantonymswhichthespeakerutteritandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”（Bloomfied,1933）.Thistheorysomewhatclosetocontextualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.SenseandreferenceSense（意義）：Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofiii.RelationaloppositesSenserelationsbetweensentenc旬際語義關(guān)系XissynonymouswithYX與Y同義Xisinconsistentwit與Y不一致theiii.XentailsY（Yisanentailmen蘊涵f關(guān)系linguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticiv.XpresupposesY（Yisaprerequisit前提預(yù)設(shè)v.Xisacontradict矛盾關(guān)系form;v.Xisacontradict矛盾關(guān)系Reference（所指意義）：Referencemeanswhatalinguistiformvi.Xissemanticallyanomal（語義異常referstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipnalysisofmeaning義分析betweenthelinguistieclementandthenon-linguistiwcorldofexperience.Majorsenserelations:synonymy（同義）：referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityfmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Synonymycanbedividedintothefollowinggroups：5.5.1Componentialanalysis（成分分析）--awaytoanalyzelexicaimeaningComponentialanalysis（成分分析）isawayproposedbythestructuralsemantieiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachibaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeature語義特征）.Thisisparalletothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctifeatures.Pluandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsaregrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiesastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitsotrermsofpredication.Utterancemeaning話語意義）：referstoasentenceaswhatpeopleusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample,theword"maituallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Itbecomesanisanalyzedascomprisingthefeaturesofutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.actuallyuttered（orused）.Woman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeanin句子意義和話語意義Father:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.IfwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetrea5.5.2Predicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningasasentence.述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析IfwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainPredicationanalysi述謂分析法）：isanewapproachforsituatioiwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasansententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanutterance.importantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsThemeaningofasentenceisabstract,addcontextualizd,ect.Predicatioiistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerthatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextdependent.constituentsargument（logicalparticipant）ndpredicate（relation6.2Speechacttheory言語彳行為理論element）.Thepredicatisthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.selectionalrestriction限制theBritishlinguistG.Leech.Predicatic述謂結(jié)構(gòu)statements^東述句imperative祈使句interrogativ疑問句argument（s）（變元，中項）predicate謂詞two-placepredication位述謂結(jié)構(gòu)）one-placepredication（單位述謂結(jié)構(gòu)）no-placepredication缺位述謂結(jié)構(gòu)）單元六Pragmatics:Pragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.generaldefinitioiisthatitisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmaticsvs.semantic運用學(xué)和語義學(xué)Saussure索緒爾6.2.1Austin'smodelofspeechactsconstatives述事話語：arestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableandconnotat內(nèi)涵的）bearingthetruth-value.performatives行事話語aresentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotveri可證實的），inotherwords,performativesareutterancethat“dothings”.Locutionaryact（言內(nèi)行為）：istheactofutteringwords,phrase,clauses.Itistheactconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsylectionandphonology.AIllocutionarya言外卜行為）：istheactofexpressingthespeaker’intention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Perlocutionaryact（言后行為）：istheactperform（執(zhí)行）byorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheactperformedbysayPragmatics：thenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,siofmeitthing.isconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragTheclassificationofillocutionaryacts：issuggestedandformmaticsbyJohn.R.Searle,thestudentofJohnAustin.AccordingtoSeaSemantics：contextisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotpeechactsfallintotruegeneralcategoriesandeachtypehasareaoftraditionalsemanticscommon,generalpurpose：Context語境）：ThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticRepresentative表述句）：statingordescribing,sayingwhatthestudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituted^^成）bythespeakerandtheheareThesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes：theknowledgeoflanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingtlgeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.Sentencemeaning（句子意義）：referstoasentenceandisaspeakerbelievestobetrue.Directive指令句）：tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.Commissives（受約句）：committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionExpressives表情句）：expressingfeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Declaration宣布句）：munity,andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoCo-operativeprinciple/命作原則）：proposedandformulatedbylanguage.P.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsSpestchvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusefirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Theprinciplehasthefollowingformaxims:1.themaximofquantity:（a）.makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.（b）.doiotmakeyourcontributionnoreinformativethanisrequired.aspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Socialectreferstoavarietyoflanguagebypeoplebelongingtparticularsocialclass.Registerreferstoafunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreeofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.themaximofquality:a.donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalseStandardlanguagereferstoavarietyoflanguageofacommunitB.donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.themaximofrelation:berelev有關(guān)聯(lián)的）themaximofmanner:a.avoidobscurity糊）ofexpression.B.avoidambiguity（多意的）.（c.）bebriefed.beordeal序）（.Conversationalimplicature會話含義）：accordingtoGTice,referstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,ornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Linguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatserveacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguageordialects.Pidginisamixedorblendedlanguageusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Itthefourmaximofthe.CP單元七Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticslanguagechange.Historicallinguistsarethefourmaximofthe.CP單元七Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticslanguagechange.Historicallinguistsareconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguagesandtheprocessesinvolvedlanguagechange.Historicallinguistslookintothenatureoflanguagechangeandthecausethatleadtolanguagechange.MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish:EnglishhasundergonedramaticchangesthroughoutthethreeknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofDiglossia雙言現(xiàn)象）referstoasociolinguisticsituationinwhicwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspthato?mudies,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedfoparticularsituation.iCnode-switchingreferstoabilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagealternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilinspeaker.Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostanlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionornatimajorperiodsofOldEnglish（449-1100）,MiddleEnglish（roughl]Anethnicdialect（orethniclanguagevariety）isasocialdialefrom1100-1500）,andmodernEnglish（1500tothepresent）.language,ofthencuttingacrossregionaldifferencesItisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperienceds