法律援助講義資料

精品文檔精心整理精品文檔可編輯精品文檔法律援助講義資料目錄：1、法律援助講義資料2、法律英語研習(xí)資料什么是法律援助在我國(guó)，法律援助是指國(guó)家設(shè)立的法律援助機(jī)構(gòu)組織法律援助人員，為經(jīng)濟(jì)困難或特殊案件的當(dāng)事人提供免費(fèi)法律服務(wù)的一項(xiàng)法律制度。法律援助的形式法律援助主要采取如下形式：一、法律咨詢，代擬法律文書，提供法律意見；二、刑事辯護(hù)或者刑事代理；三、民事、行政訴訟代理；四、非訴訟法律援助代理。法律援助的范圍法律援助的范圍包括一、刑事案件；二、依法請(qǐng)求國(guó)家賠償?shù)?；三、?qǐng)求給予社會(huì)保險(xiǎn)待遇或最低生活保障待遇的；四、請(qǐng)求發(fā)給撫恤金、救濟(jì)金的；五、請(qǐng)求給付贍養(yǎng)費(fèi)、撫養(yǎng)費(fèi)、扶養(yǎng)費(fèi)的；六、請(qǐng)求支付勞動(dòng)報(bào)酬的；七、主張因見義勇為產(chǎn)生的民事權(quán)益的；八、追索交通事故、醫(yī)療事故、工傷事故或者其他人身傷害事故的醫(yī)療費(fèi)用和賠償?shù)姆墒马?xiàng)；九、殘疾人、未成年人、老年人、軍人及軍屬追索賠償?shù)姆墒马?xiàng)；十、其他確需法律援助的法律事項(xiàng)。如何辦理非訴訟法律援助根據(jù)國(guó)務(wù)院《法律援助條例》和《湖南省法律援助條例》的規(guī)定，鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站辦理非訴訟法律援助案件，按照以下步驟進(jìn)行：一、受理申請(qǐng)。要求當(dāng)事人提供如下材料:1、法律援助申請(qǐng)書：指導(dǎo)公民寫明申請(qǐng)非訴訟法律援助的事實(shí)和理由。2、身份證明：身份證、戶口薄或暫住證及復(fù)印件；代理申請(qǐng)的必須提交代理權(quán)證明及代理人的身份證及復(fù)印件。3、經(jīng)濟(jì)困難證明：提交低保證及復(fù)印件，或者提交縣級(jí)以上民政局或戶口所在地村，社區(qū)出具的經(jīng)濟(jì)困難證明。4、與所申請(qǐng)事項(xiàng)相關(guān)的證據(jù)材料：判決書、裁定書、合同等與申請(qǐng)法律援助事項(xiàng)有關(guān)的法律文書；書證、物證、視聽資料、鑒定結(jié)論（交通事故賠償?shù)奶峤唤痪?duì)交通事故責(zé)任認(rèn)定鑒定材料；工傷事故賠償?shù)奶峤粍趧?dòng)局工傷事故認(rèn)定書；其他人身傷害事故賠償?shù)奶峤会t(yī)療鑒定書）、勘驗(yàn)筆錄、當(dāng)事人陳述、證人證言或證人名單等相關(guān)證據(jù)材料等。二、進(jìn)行審查。申請(qǐng)人提交的證件、證明材料不齊全的，鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站可以要求申請(qǐng)人做出必要的補(bǔ)充或者說明，申請(qǐng)人未按要求做出補(bǔ)充或說明的，視為撤銷申請(qǐng)。三、填寫表格。申請(qǐng)人提交的材料齊全，鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站應(yīng)當(dāng)指導(dǎo)申請(qǐng)人填寫當(dāng)事人經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況證明表，法律援助申請(qǐng)表，并填寫好法律援助審批表，連同當(dāng)事人提交的材料一并送交到區(qū)法律援助中心進(jìn)行審批。四、承辦案件。案件經(jīng)審批后，根據(jù)區(qū)法律援助中心指派，辦理呈報(bào)的非訴訟法律援助案件。各承辦案件的鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站與當(dāng)事人簽訂授權(quán)委托書，并為當(dāng)事人開展非訴訟調(diào)解工作，促使當(dāng)事人與對(duì)方達(dá)成調(diào)解協(xié)議書。五、報(bào)送案卷。達(dá)成調(diào)解協(xié)議后，鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站應(yīng)當(dāng)填寫結(jié)案報(bào)告，并將所有案件材料整理成案卷及時(shí)送交到區(qū)法律援助中心。非訴訟法律援助工作流程圖法律援助申請(qǐng)（申請(qǐng)人提交申請(qǐng)書，困難證明等相關(guān)資料）材料初步審查（法援工作站對(duì)申請(qǐng)人提交的材料進(jìn)行初審）指導(dǎo)填寫表格（法援工作站指導(dǎo)申請(qǐng)人填寫經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況證明表，申請(qǐng)表等）呈報(bào)中心批準(zhǔn)（將申請(qǐng)表格及相關(guān)材料報(bào)區(qū)法援中心批準(zhǔn)）符合條件給予援助不符合條件，不予法律援助告知申請(qǐng)人向其他有關(guān)部門申請(qǐng)辦理發(fā)出指派通知書告知申請(qǐng)人向其他有關(guān)部門申請(qǐng)辦理辦理委托手續(xù)提供法律援助報(bào)送法援案卷

非訴訟法律援助案卷填寫指南鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站承辦非訴訟法律援助案件，必須按照卷內(nèi)目錄中材料的順序整理裝訂法律援助案卷，不得缺頁(yè)，少頁(yè)。填寫相關(guān)法律援助表格，必須按照規(guī)定的格式和要求填寫，不得亂填，不填。給予法律援助決定書，指派通知書由區(qū)法律援助中心填寫。人民調(diào)解協(xié)議書，調(diào)查筆錄，調(diào)解筆錄由鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站制作并裝入案卷。法律援助申請(qǐng)書由各鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站指導(dǎo)申請(qǐng)人書寫，并由工作站裝入案卷。雨湖區(qū)法律援助中心卷宗第卷字第號(hào)收案案由結(jié)案案由申請(qǐng)人或原告被告收案日期一審(調(diào)解)結(jié)果結(jié)案日期上訴結(jié)果保存年限復(fù)核結(jié)果承辦人備注：1、除了案卷卷號(hào)，字號(hào)，上訴結(jié)果，復(fù)核結(jié)果，保存年限外，其他內(nèi)容均應(yīng)該按照規(guī)定填寫，不得缺填，亂填。2、收案日期系法律援助審批表上的審批時(shí)間，結(jié)案日期為人民調(diào)解協(xié)議書上填寫的時(shí)間。卷內(nèi)目錄序號(hào)材料名稱頁(yè)次備注1法律援助申請(qǐng)書2法律援助申請(qǐng)人及其家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況證明3法律援助申請(qǐng)表4法律援助審批表5給予法律援助決定書6指派通知書7授權(quán)委托書8人民調(diào)解協(xié)議書9調(diào)查調(diào)解筆錄10舉證材料11結(jié)案報(bào)告12其他材料備注：案卷材料應(yīng)該按照卷內(nèi)目錄的順序排列，并用鉛筆進(jìn)行編號(hào)，在卷內(nèi)目錄中填寫相應(yīng)的頁(yè)碼。法律援助申請(qǐng)人及其家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況證明申請(qǐng)人姓別年齡工作單位家庭住址申請(qǐng)人及其家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況如下：□職業(yè)收入（含離退休金）每月元□救濟(jì)金每月元□其他收入每月元□無收入□申請(qǐng)人家庭人口：人□家庭月平均收入元□家庭月基本開支元申請(qǐng)人家庭現(xiàn)有價(jià)值千元以上財(cái)產(chǎn)狀況：總價(jià)值元財(cái)產(chǎn)項(xiàng)目財(cái)產(chǎn)價(jià)值（元）其家庭成員及經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況如下（單位：元/月均）姓名年齡與其關(guān)系收入職業(yè)工作單位或就讀學(xué)校申請(qǐng)人家庭月平均收入元，年度總收入元。申請(qǐng)人家庭每月基本經(jīng)濟(jì)開支（單位：元/月）基本生活費(fèi)用合計(jì)申請(qǐng)人供養(yǎng)人經(jīng)濟(jì)開支備注其中住房（租金、管理費(fèi)等）姓名年齡關(guān)系經(jīng)濟(jì)開支日常生活費(fèi)用教育費(fèi)用醫(yī)療費(fèi)其他必要開支合計(jì)申請(qǐng)人家庭自有房產(chǎn)地址：產(chǎn)權(quán)證書編號(hào)：建筑面積：m2使用狀況：□自用□出租另需說明的事項(xiàng)：特此說明。出證單位（公章）出證單位聯(lián)系電話：年月日備注：1、家庭成員包括申請(qǐng)人配偶、未成年子女、由其供養(yǎng)的尚在求學(xué)的成年子女、與其共同生活并由其供養(yǎng)的其他人員或未成年申請(qǐng)人的父母。2、出證單位是指申請(qǐng)人戶籍所在地或經(jīng)常居住地的村，社區(qū)及民政部門。3、所在相關(guān)內(nèi)容均需要填寫，沒有內(nèi)容的應(yīng)該寫無或用斜線（/）標(biāo)明。4、申請(qǐng)人及其家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況中，收入一項(xiàng)應(yīng)該在前四項(xiàng)中用劃勾的形式標(biāo)明，并填寫具體數(shù)額，經(jīng)濟(jì)收入包括家庭所有成員的收入，即家庭總收入，不局限于申請(qǐng)人的收入。家庭月平均收入為家庭總收入除以家庭人口，家庭月基本支出為申請(qǐng)人家庭所有成員的月基本支出，包括住房，教育等所有內(nèi)容。家庭月基本支出應(yīng)該等于各明細(xì)支出的總和。

法律援助申請(qǐng)表援審字[]第號(hào)說明：1、申請(qǐng)人填寫本申請(qǐng)表前須仔細(xì)閱讀法律援助機(jī)構(gòu)提供的有關(guān)資料。2、申請(qǐng)人應(yīng)如實(shí)填寫本人的實(shí)際情況。3、除法援編號(hào)外，所有內(nèi)容均需填寫，請(qǐng)按照欄目要求使用正楷文字填寫，或在適當(dāng)□內(nèi)打√。――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――申請(qǐng)人基本情況申請(qǐng)人：性別：出生日期：民族：法定代理人（申請(qǐng)人為無民事行為或限制行為能力時(shí)填寫）：身份證號(hào)碼：□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□戶籍所在地：工作單位：聯(lián)系電話：住所地址：郵政編碼：文化程度：□文盲□小學(xué)□中學(xué)□大專以上身體狀況：□健康□殘疾□嚴(yán)重疾病人群類別（可重復(fù)交叉）□殘疾人□老年人（60歲以上）□未成年人□婦女□優(yōu)撫對(duì)象□農(nóng)村“五”保戶□低保對(duì)象□農(nóng)民工□失業(yè)人員□少數(shù)民族□軍人軍屬□盲聾啞□可能被判處死刑的□其他（請(qǐng)注明）――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――申請(qǐng)法律援助事項(xiàng)的類別□刑事案件□請(qǐng)求國(guó)家賠償□請(qǐng)求給予最低生活保障待遇或社會(huì)保險(xiǎn)待遇□請(qǐng)求發(fā)給撫恤金、救濟(jì)金□請(qǐng)求給付贍養(yǎng)費(fèi)、撫養(yǎng)費(fèi)、扶養(yǎng)費(fèi)□請(qǐng)求支付勞動(dòng)報(bào)酬□主張因見義勇為行為產(chǎn)生的民事權(quán)益□其他（省、自治區(qū)、直轄市人民政府補(bǔ)充規(guī)定的法律援助事項(xiàng)，請(qǐng)注明）申請(qǐng)人在申請(qǐng)事項(xiàng)中的法律地位民事訴訟：□原告（上訴人）□被告（被上訴人）□第三人行政訴訟:□原告（上訴人）□被告（被上訴人）□第三人勞動(dòng)仲裁：□申請(qǐng)人□被申請(qǐng)人非訴訟：□申請(qǐng)人□被申請(qǐng)人刑事:□犯罪嫌疑人□被害人□被害人的法定代理人或其近親屬□自訴人□自訴人的法定代理人□被告人申請(qǐng)事項(xiàng)法律狀態(tài)□尚未進(jìn)入法律程序□偵查□起訴□訴訟（□一審□二審□審判監(jiān)督程序）□申訴□仲裁□調(diào)解□行政處理□行政復(fù)議申請(qǐng)法律援助援助方式□刑事辯護(hù)□刑事被害人代理□刑事附帶民事訴訟□自訴代理□民事訴訟代理□行政訴訟代理□非訴訟代理（□勞動(dòng)仲裁代理□其他）申請(qǐng)人及家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況□職業(yè)收入（含離退休金）每月元□救濟(jì)金每月元□其他收入每月元□無收入□申請(qǐng)人家庭人口：人□家庭月平均收入元□家庭月基本開支元申請(qǐng)人家庭現(xiàn)有價(jià)值千元以上財(cái)產(chǎn)狀況：總價(jià)值（元）申請(qǐng)人家庭自有房產(chǎn)建筑面積：平方米使用狀況：□自用□出租申請(qǐng)法律援助的案情及理由概述：以上所填情況均為屬實(shí)。申請(qǐng)人（法定代理人）簽字：年月日

法律援助審批表

援審字[

]第

號(hào)申請(qǐng)人：申請(qǐng)事項(xiàng)：

受理申請(qǐng)時(shí)間：

年

月

日申請(qǐng)人及其家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況：□職業(yè)收入（含離退休金）每月

元□救濟(jì)金金每月

元□其他收入每月

元□無收入□申請(qǐng)人家庭人：

人□家庭月平均收入

元□家庭月基本開支

元

是否符合法律援助經(jīng)濟(jì)困難標(biāo)準(zhǔn):

□是

□否

經(jīng)濟(jì)困難證明:

□有□無

案件來源：□當(dāng)事人申請(qǐng)□人民法院指定□公安機(jī)關(guān)轉(zhuǎn)交

□檢察機(jī)關(guān)轉(zhuǎn)交

□社會(huì)組織轉(zhuǎn)交

□律師事務(wù)所轉(zhuǎn)交□其他來源(注明)法律援助事項(xiàng)類別:□刑事案件□請(qǐng)求國(guó)家賠償□請(qǐng)求給予最低生活保障待遇或社會(huì)保險(xiǎn)待遇□請(qǐng)求發(fā)給撫恤金、救濟(jì)金

□請(qǐng)求給付贍養(yǎng)費(fèi)、撫養(yǎng)費(fèi)、扶養(yǎng)費(fèi)□請(qǐng)求支付勞動(dòng)報(bào)酬□主張因見義勇為行為產(chǎn)生的民事權(quán)益□其他（省、自治區(qū)、直轄市人民政府補(bǔ)充規(guī)定的法律援助事項(xiàng)，請(qǐng)注明）受援人分類:□殘疾人

□老年人（60歲以上）□未成年人

□婦女

□優(yōu)撫對(duì)象

□農(nóng)村＂五＂保戶□低保對(duì)象□農(nóng)民工□失業(yè)人員□少數(shù)民族□軍人家屬□盲聾啞□可能被判處死刑的□其它（請(qǐng)注明）提供法律援助方式:□刑事辯護(hù)

□刑事被害人代理

□刑事附帶民事訴訟

□自訴代理

□民事訴訟代理□行政訴訟代理

□非訴訟代理（□勞動(dòng)仲裁代理□其他）案情概要:審查意見；

簽名及日期:主任審批意見：

簽名及日期:備注：除法援編號(hào)，主任審批意見外，所在內(nèi)容均需填寫或打√。

給予法律援助決定書()援決字[]笫號(hào)申請(qǐng)人：事由：批準(zhǔn)人：領(lǐng)函人（簽字）：時(shí)間：給予法律援助決定書援決字[]笫號(hào)：你于年月日向本中心(處)提出的法律援助申請(qǐng)，經(jīng)審查，符合法律援助條件，決定給予法律援助，提供法律援助方式為。法律援助中心(處)（公章）年月日備注：此決定書由區(qū)法律援助中心填寫。

指派通知書援指字[]第號(hào)發(fā)往單位：事由：受援人：批準(zhǔn)人：領(lǐng)函人簽收：時(shí)間：指派通知書()援指字[]第號(hào)：根據(jù)法律援助的有關(guān)規(guī)定，本中心(處)決定對(duì)一案提供法律援助。現(xiàn)指派你單位承辦該案。請(qǐng)你們根據(jù)案件的具體情況和需要，并在收到通知之日起3日內(nèi)，安排律師或合適的人員承辦該案并與受援人辦理有關(guān)委托手續(xù)，并將指派情況告知本法律援助中心處。特此通知。法律援助中心(處)（公章）

年月日

法律援助機(jī)構(gòu)地址：聯(lián)系人及聯(lián)系方式：備注：此通知書由區(qū)法律援助中心填寫。

授權(quán)委托書委托人因（案由）一案向雨湖區(qū)法律援助中心申請(qǐng)法律援助，已獲批準(zhǔn)?，F(xiàn)委托該法律援助中心指派的（法援工作站）（承辦人），為委托人案擔(dān)任辯護(hù)人（或代理人）。本委托書有效期自出具之日起至本案本審終結(jié)止。委托權(quán)限如下：委托人：年月日備注：此委托書由鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站工作人員指導(dǎo)申請(qǐng)人填寫。委托權(quán)限為一般代理。

法律援助案件結(jié)案報(bào)告表援結(jié)字[]第號(hào)填表時(shí)間：年月日承辦單位承辦人承辦人分類□法律援助機(jī)構(gòu)工作人員□社會(huì)律師□基層法律服務(wù)工作者□社會(huì)組織人員□法律援助志愿者□其他（請(qǐng)注明）案由受援人審理機(jī)關(guān)(案號(hào))審級(jí)（訴訟案件）指派日期開庭日期判決(裁決)日期援助形式□刑事辯護(hù)□刑事被害人代理□自訴代理□民事訴訟代理（包括刑事附帶民事訴訟）□行政訴訟代理□勞動(dòng)仲裁代理□非訴訟代理案情及承辦情況報(bào)告（可另外加頁(yè)附上）承辦結(jié)果民事（行政/非訴訟/仲裁）：□判決/裁決結(jié)案（□勝訴□敗訴□部分勝訴）□調(diào)解或和解□撤訴刑事：□全部采納□部分采納□未采納其他：當(dāng)事人滿意程度□滿意□較滿意□一般□不滿意備注備注：除法援編號(hào)，審理機(jī)關(guān)，審級(jí)，開庭日期，判決日期外，所在內(nèi)容均需填寫或打√法律援助案件報(bào)表姓名出生年月性別民族職業(yè)婚姻狀況身份類別工作單位文化程度住址聯(lián)系電話身份證號(hào)健康狀況申請(qǐng)時(shí)間案由申請(qǐng)理由審批時(shí)間結(jié)案時(shí)間案情簡(jiǎn)述辦理情況承辦單位承辦人結(jié)案時(shí)間備注備注：1、該表登記的是當(dāng)月已辦理完的非訴訟法律援助調(diào)解案件，各鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站應(yīng)該在每個(gè)月例會(huì)前將本表報(bào)到司法局郵箱，并在一周內(nèi)及時(shí)整理好非訴訟法律援助案卷報(bào)司法局存檔。2、該表所有內(nèi)容均需要填寫。鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街道法律援助案件登記臺(tái)帳序號(hào)申請(qǐng)人性別年齡地址申請(qǐng)理由案由申請(qǐng)時(shí)間承辦人辦理結(jié)果備注注：1、各鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法律援助工作站應(yīng)該將本工作站辦理的非訴訟法律援助案件按照時(shí)間順序填入該表，并整理成冊(cè)放置在鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街備查。2、所在內(nèi)容均需填寫，不得不填，亂填。村(社區(qū))法律援助咨詢登記本序號(hào)咨詢?nèi)诵詣e年齡住址咨詢事由咨詢時(shí)間答復(fù)人處理結(jié)果備注注：各鄉(xiāng)、鎮(zhèn)、街法援工作站的社區(qū)和村均應(yīng)該及時(shí)將本社區(qū)居民或村民的法律援助咨詢情況填入該表，并整理成冊(cè)放置在社區(qū)，村備查。精品文檔精心整理精品文檔可編輯精品文檔THEPATHOFTHELAWbyOliverWendellHolmes,Jr.10HarvardLawReview457(1897)Whenwestudylawwearenotstudyingamysterybutawell-knownprofession.Wearestudyingwhatweshallwantinordertoappearbeforejudges,ortoadvisepeopleinsuchawayastokeepthemoutofcourt.Thereasonwhyitisaprofession,whypeoplewillpaylawyerstoargueforthemortoadvisethem,isthatinsocietieslikeoursthecommandofthepublicforceisintrustedtothejudgesincertaincases,andthewholepowerofthestatewillbeputforth,ifnecessary,tocarryouttheirjudgmentsanddecrees.Peoplewanttoknowunderwhatcircumstancesandhowfartheywillruntheriskofcomingagainstwhatissomuchstrongerthanthemselves,andhenceitbecomesabusinesstofindoutwhenthisdangeristobefeared.Theobjectofourstudy,then,isprediction,thepredictionoftheincidenceofthepublicforcethroughtheinstrumentalityofthecourts.Themeansofthestudyareabodyofreports,oftreatises,andofstatutes,inthiscountryandinEngland,extendingbackforsixhundredyears,andnowincreasingannuallybyhundreds.Inthesesibyllineleavesaregatheredthescatteredpropheciesofthepastuponthecasesinwhichtheaxewillfall.Thesearewhatproperlyhavebeencalledtheoraclesofthelaw.Farthemostimportantandprettynearlythewholemeaningofeveryneweffortoflegalthoughtistomakethesepropheciesmoreprecise,andtogeneralizethemintoathoroughlyconnectedsystem.Theprocessisone,fromalawyer'sstatementofacase,eliminatingasitdoesallthedramaticelementswithwhichhisclient'sstoryhasclothedit,andretainingonlythefactsoflegalimport,uptothefinalanalysesandabstractuniversalsoftheoreticjurisprudence.Thereasonwhyalawyerdoesnotmentionthathisclientworeawhitehatwhenhemadeacontract,whileMrs.Quicklywouldbesuretodwelluponitalongwiththeparcelgiltgobletandthesea-coalfire,isthatheforeseesthatthepublicforcewillactinthesamewaywhateverhisclienthaduponhishead.Itistomaketheprophecieseasiertoberememberedandtobeunderstoodthattheteachingsofthedecisionsofthepastareputintogeneralpropositionsandgatheredintotextbooks,orthatstatutesarepassedinageneralform.Theprimaryrightsanddutieswithwhichjurisprudencebusiesitselfagainarenothingbutprophecies.Oneofthemanyevileffectsoftheconfusionbetweenlegalandmoralideas,aboutwhichIshallhavesomethingtosayinamoment,isthattheoryisapttogetthecartbeforethehorse,andconsidertherightorthedutyassomethingexistingapartfromandindependentoftheconsequencesofitsbreach,towhichcertainsanctionsareaddedafterward.But,asIshalltrytoshow,alegaldutysocalledisnothingbutapredictionthatifamandoesoromitscertainthingshewillbemadetosufferinthisorthatwaybyjudgmentofthecourt;andsoofalegalright.Thenumberofourpredictionswhengeneralizedandreducedtoasystemisnotunmanageablylarge.Theypresentthemselvesasafinitebodyofdogmawhichmaybemasteredwithinareasonabletime.Itisagreatmistaketobefrightenedbytheever-increasingnumberofreports.Thereportsofagivenjurisdictioninthecourseofagenerationtakeupprettymuchthewholebodyofthelaw,andrestateitfromthepresentpointofview.Wecouldreconstructthecorpusfromthemifallthatwentbeforewereburned.Theuseoftheearlierreportsismainlyhistorical,auseaboutwhichIshallhavesomethingtosaybeforeIhavefinished.Iwish,ifIcan,tolaydownsomefirstprinciplesforthestudyofthisbodyofdogmaorsystematizedpredictionwhichwecallthelaw,formenwhowanttouseitastheinstrumentoftheirbusinesstoenablethemtoprophesyintheirturn,and,asbearinguponthestudy,Iwishtopointoutanidealwhichasyetourlawhasnotattained.Thefirstthingforabusinesslikeunderstandingofthematteristounderstanditslimits,andthereforeIthinkitdesirableatoncetopointoutanddispelaconfusionbetweenmoralityandlaw,whichsometimesrisestotheheightofconscioustheory,andmoreoftenandindeedconstantlyismakingtroubleindetailwithoutreachingthepointofconsciousness.Youcanseeveryplainlythatabadmanhasasmuchreasonasagoodoneforwishingtoavoidanencounterwiththepublicforce,andthereforeyoucanseethepracticalimportanceofthedistinctionbetweenmoralityandlaw.Amanwhocaresnothingforanethicalrulewhichisbelievedandpractisedbyhisneighborsislikelyneverthelesstocareagooddealtoavoidbeingmadetopaymoney,andwillwanttokeepoutofjailifhecan.ItakeitforgrantedthatnohearerofminewillmisinterpretwhatIhavetosayasthelanguageofcynicism.Thelawisthewitnessandexternaldepositofourmorallife.Itshistoryisthehistoryofthemoraldevelopmentoftherace.Thepracticeofit,inspiteofpopularjests,tendstomakegoodcitizensandgoodmen.WhenIemphasizethedifferencebetweenlawandmoralsIdosowithreferencetoasingleend,thatoflearningandunderstandingthelaw.Forthatpurposeyoumustdefinitelymasteritsspecificmarks,anditisforthatthatIaskyouforthemomenttoimagineyourselvesindifferenttootherandgreaterthings.Idonotsaythatthereisnotawiderpointofviewfromwhichthedistinctionbetweenlawandmoralsbecomesofsecondaryornoimportance,asallmathematicaldistinctionsvanishinpresenceoftheinfinite.ButIdosaythatthatdistinctionisofthefirstimportancefortheobjectwhichweareheretoconsider--arightstudyandmasteryofthelawasabusinesswithwellunderstoodlimits,abodyofdogmaenclosedwithindefinitelines.Ihavejustshownthepracticalreasonforsayingso.Ifyouwanttoknowthelawandnothingelse,youmustlookatitasabadman,whocaresonlyforthematerialconsequenceswhichsuchknowledgeenableshimtopredict,notasagoodone,whofindshisreasonsforconduct,whetherinsidethelaworoutsideofit,inthevaguersanctionsofconscience.Thetheoreticalimportanceofthedistinctionisnoless,ifyouwouldreasononyoursubjectaright.Thelawisfullofphraseologydrawnfrommorals,andbythemereforceoflanguagecontinuallyinvitesustopassfromonedomaintotheotherwithoutperceivingit,aswearesuretodounlesswehavetheboundaryconstantlybeforeourminds.Thelawtalksaboutrights,andduties,andmalice,andintent,andnegligence,andsoforth,andnothingiseasier,or,Imaysay,morecommoninlegalreasoning,thantotakethesewordsintheirmoralsense,atsomestateoftheargument,andsotodropintofallacy.Forinstance,whenwespeakoftherightsofmaninamoralsense,wemeantomarkthelimitsofinterferencewithindividualfreedomwhichwethinkareprescribedbyconscience,orbyourideal,howeverreached.Yetitiscertainthatmanylawshavebeenenforcedinthepast,anditislikelythatsomeareenforcednow,whicharecondemnedbythemostenlightenedopinionofthetime,orwhichatalleventspassthelimitofinterference,asmanyconscienceswoulddrawit.Manifestly,therefore,nothingbutconfusionofthoughtcanresultfromassumingthattherightsofmaninamoralsenseareequallyrightsinthesenseoftheConstitutionandthelaw.Nodoubtsimpleandextremecasescanbeputofimaginablelawswhichthestatute-makingpowerwouldnotdaretoenact,evenintheabsenceofwrittenconstitutionalprohibitions,becausethecommunitywouldriseinrebellionandfight;andthisgivessomeplausibilitytothepropositionthatthelaw,ifnotapartofmorality,islimitedbyit.Butthislimitofpowerisnotcoextensivewithanysystemofmorals.Forthemostpartitfallsfarwithinthelinesofanysuchsystem,andinsomecasesmayextendbeyondthem,forreasonsdrawnfromthehabitsofaparticularpeopleataparticulartime.IonceheardthelateProfessorAgassizsaythataGermanpopulationwouldriseifyouaddedtwocentstothepriceofaglassofbeer.Astatuteinsuchacasewouldbeemptywords,notbecauseitwaswrong,butbecauseitcouldnotbeenforced.Noonewilldenythatwrongstatutescanbeandareenforced,andwewouldnotallagreeastowhichwerethewrongones.TheconfusionwithwhichIamdealingbesetsconfessedlylegalconceptions.Takethefundamentalquestion,Whatconstitutesthelaw?YouwillfindsometextwriterstellingyouthatitissomethingdifferentfromwhatisdecidedbythecourtsofMassachusettsorEngland,thatitisasystemofreason,thatitisadeductionfromprinciplesofethicsoradmittedaxiomsorwhatnot,whichmayormaynotcoincidewiththedecisions.Butifwetaketheviewofourfriendthebadmanweshallfindthathedoesnotcaretwostrawsfortheaxiomsordeductions,butthathedoeswanttoknowwhattheMassachusettsorEnglishcourtsarelikelytodoinfact.Iammuchofthismind.Thepropheciesofwhatthecourtswilldoinfact,andnothingmorepretentious,arewhatImeanbythelaw.Takeagainanotionwhichaspopularlyunderstoodisthewidestconceptionwhichthelawcontains--thenotionoflegalduty,towhichalreadyIhavereferred.Wefillthewordwithallthecontentwhichwedrawfrommorals.Butwhatdoesitmeantoabadman?Mainly,andinthefirstplace,aprophecythatifhedoescertainthingshewillbesubjectedtodisagreeableconsequencesbywayofimprisonmentorcompulsorypaymentofmoney.Butfromhispointofview,whatisthedifferencebetweenbeingfinedandtaxedacertainsumfordoingacertainthing?Thathispointofviewisthetestoflegalprinciplesisprovenbythemanydiscussionswhichhaveariseninthecourtsontheveryquestionwhetheragivenstatutoryliabilityisapenaltyoratax.Ontheanswertothisquestiondependsthedecisionwhetherconductislegallywrongorright,andalsowhetheramanisundercompulsionorfree.Leavingthecriminallawononeside,whatisthedifferencebetweentheliabilityunderthemillactsorstatutesauthorizingatakingbyeminentdomainandtheliabilityforwhatwecallawrongfulconversionofpropertywhererestorationisoutofthequestion.Inbothcasesthepartytakinganotherman'spropertyhastopayitsfairvalueasassessedbyajury,andnomore.Whatsignificanceisthereincallingonetakingrightandanotherwrongfromthepointofviewofthelaw?Itdoesnotmatter,sofarasthegivenconsequence,thecompulsorypayment,isconcerned,whethertheacttowhichitisattachedisdescribedintermsofpraiseorintermsofblame,orwhetherthelawpurportstoprohibititortoallowit.Ifitmattersatall,stillspeakingfromthebadman'spointofview,itmustbebecauseinonecaseandnotintheothersomefurtherdisadvantages,oratleastsomefurtherconsequences,areattachedtotheactbylaw.TheonlyotherdisadvantagesthusattachedtoitwhichIeverhavebeenabletothinkofaretobefoundintwosomewhatinsignificantlegaldoctrines,bothofwhichmightbeabolishedwithoutmuchdisturbance.Oneis,thatacontracttodoaprohibitedactisunlawful,andtheother,that,ifoneoftwoormorejointwrongdoershastopayallthedamages,hecannotrecovercontributionfromhisfellows.AndthatIbelieveisall.Youseehowthevaguecircumferenceofthenotionofdutyshrinksandatthesametimegrowsmoreprecisewhenwewashitwithcynicalacidandexpeleverythingexcepttheobjectofourstudy,theoperationsofthelaw.Nowhereistheconfusionbetweenlegalandmoralideasmoremanifestthaninthelawofcontract.Amongotherthings,hereagaintheso-calledprimaryrightsanddutiesareinvestedwithamysticsignificancebeyondwhatcanbeassignedandexplained.Thedutytokeepacontractatcommonlawmeansapredictionthatyoumustpaydamagesifyoudonotkeepit--andnothingelse.Ifyoucommitatort,youareliabletopayacompensatorysum.Ifyoucommitacontract,youareliabletopayacompensatorysumunlessthepromisedeventcomestopass,andthatisallthedifference.Butsuchamodeoflookingatthematterstinksinthenostrilsofthosewhothinkitadvantageoustogetasmuchethicsintothelawastheycan.ItwasgoodenoughforLordCoke,however,andhere,asinmanyotherscases,Iamcontenttoabidewithhim.InBromagev.Genning,aprohibitionwassoughtintheKings'BenchagainstasuitinthemarchesofWalesforthespecificperformanceofacovenanttograntalease,andCokesaidthatitwouldsubverttheintentionofthecovenantor,sinceheintendsittobeathiselectioneithertolosethedamagesortomakethelease.SergeantHarrafortheplaintiffconfessedthathemovedthematteragainsthisconscience,andaprohibitionwasgranted.Thisgoesfurtherthanweshouldgonow,butitshowswhatIventuretosayhasbeenthecommonlawpointofviewfromthebeginning,althoughMr.Harriman,inhisveryablelittlebookuponContractshasbeenmisled,asIhumblythink,toadifferentconclusion.Ihavespokenonlyofthecommonlaw,becausetherearesomecasesinwhichalogicaljustificationcanbefoundforspeakingofcivilliabilitiesasimposingdutiesinanintelligiblesense.Thesearetherelativelyfewinwhichequitywillgrantaninjunction,andwillenforceitbyputtingthedefendantinprisonorotherwisepunishinghimunlesshecomplieswiththeorderofthecourt.ButIhardlythinkitadvisabletoshapegeneraltheoryfromtheexception,andIthinkitwouldbebettertoceasetroublingourselvesaboutprimaryrightsandsanctionsaltogether,thantodescribeourpropheciesconcerningtheliabilitiescommonlyimposedbythelawinthoseinappropriateterms.Imentioned,asotherexamplesoftheusebythelawofwordsdrawnfrommorals,malice,intent,andnegligence.Itisenoughtotakemaliceasitisusedinthelawofcivilliabilityforwrongswhatwelawyerscallthelawoftorts--toshowthatitmeanssomethingdifferentinlawfromwhatitmeansinmorals,andalsotoshowhowthedifferencehasbeenobscuredbygivingtoprincipleswhichhavelittleornothingtodowitheachotherthesamename.ThreehundredyearsagoaparsonpreachedasermonandtoldastoryoutofFox'sBookofMartyrsofamanwhohadassistedatthetortureofoneofthesaints,andafterwarddied,sufferingcompensatoryinwardtorment.IthappenedthatFoxwaswrong.Themanwasaliveandchancedtohearthesermon,andthereuponhesuedtheparson.ChiefJusticeWrayinstructedthejurythatthedefendantwasnotliable,becausethestorywastoldinnocently,withoutmalice.Hetookmaliceinthemoralsense,asimportingamalevolentmotive.Butnowadaysnoonedoubtsthatamanmaybeliable,withoutanymalevolentmotiveatall,forfalsestatementsmanifestlycalculatedtoinflicttemporaldamage.Instatingthecaseinpleading,westillshouldcallthedefendant'sconductmalicious;but,inmyopinionatleast,thewordmeansnothingaboutmotives,orevenaboutthedefendant'sattitudetowardthefuture,butonlysignifiesthatthetendencyofhisconductunderknowncircumstanceswasveryplainlytocausetheplaintifftemporalharm.Inthelawofcontracttheuseofmoralphraseologyledtoequalconfusion,asIhaveshowninpartalready,butonlyinpart.Moralsdealwiththeactualinternalstateoftheindividual'smind,whatheactuallyintends.FromthetimeoftheRomansdowntonow,thismodeofdealinghasaffectedthelanguageofthelawastocontract,andthelanguageusedhasreacteduponthethought.Wetalkaboutacontractasameetingofthemindsoftheparties,andthenceitisinferredinvariouscasesthatthereisnocontractbecausetheirmindshavenotmet;thatis,becausetheyhaveintendeddifferentthingsorbecauseonepartyhasnotknownoftheassentoftheother.Yetnothingismorecertainthanthatpartiesmaybeboundbyacontracttothingswhichneitherofthemintended,andwhenonedoesnotknowoftheother'sassent.Supposeacontractisexecutedindueformandinwritingtodeliveralecture,mentioningnotime.Oneofthepartiesthinksthatthepromisewillbeconstruedtomeanatonce,withinaweek.Theotherthinksthatitmeanswhenheisready.Thecourtsaysthatitmeanswithinareasonabletime.Thepartiesareboundbythecontractasitisinterpretedbythecourt,yetneitherofthemmeantwhatthecourtdeclaresthattheyhavesaid.Inmyopinionnoonewillunderstandthetruetheoryofcontractorbeableeventodiscusssomefundamentalquestionsintelligentlyuntilhehasunderstoodthatallcontractsareformal,thatthemakingofacontractdependsnotontheagreementoftwomindsinoneintention,butontheagreementoftwosetsofexternalsigns--notontheparties'havingmeantthesamethingbutontheirhavingsaidthesamething.Furthermore,asthesignsmaybeaddressedtoonesenseoranother--tosightortohearing--onthenatureofthesignwilldependthemomentwhenthecontractismade.Ifthesignistangible,forinstance,aletter,thecontractismadewhentheletterofacceptanceisdelivered.Ifitisnecessarythatthemindsofthepartiesmeet,therewillbenocontractuntiltheacceptancecanberead;none,forexample,iftheacceptancebesnatchedfromthehandoftheoffererbyathirdperson.Thisisnotthetimetoworkoutatheoryindetail,ortoanswermanyobviousdoubtsandquestionswhicharesuggestedbythesegeneralviews.Iknowofnonewhicharenoteasytoanswer,butwhatIamtryingtodonowisonlybyaseriesofhintstothrowsomelightonthenarrowpathoflegaldoctrine,andupontwopitfallswhich,asitseemstome,lieperilouslyneartoit.OfthefirstoftheseIhavesaidenough.Ihopethatmyillustrationshaveshownthedanger,bothtospeculationandtopractice,ofconfoundingmoralitywithlaw,andthetrapwhichlegallanguagelaysforusonthatsideofourway.Formyownpart,Ioftendoubtwhetheritwouldnotbeagainifeverywordofmoralsignificancecouldbebanishedfromthelawaltogether,andotherwordsadoptedwhichshouldconveylegalideasuncoloredbyanythingoutsidethelaw.Weshouldlosethefossilrecordsofagooddealofhistoryandthemajestygotfromethicalassociations,butbyriddingourselvesofanunnecessaryconfusionweshouldgainverymuchintheclearnessofourthought.Somuchforthelimitsofthelaw.ThenextthingwhichIwishtoconsideriswhataretheforceswhichdetermineitscontentanditsgrowth.Youmayassume,withHobbesandBenthamandAustin,thatalllawemanatesfromthesovereign,evenwhenthefirsthumanbeingstoenunciateitarethejudges,oryoumaythinkthatlawisthevoiceoftheZeitgeist,orwhatyoulike.Itisallonetomypresentpurpose.Evenifeverydecisionrequiredthesanctionofanemperorwithdespoticpowerandawhimsicalturnofmind,weshouldbeinterestednonetheless,stillwithaviewtoprediction,indiscoveringsomeorder,somerationalexplanation,andsomeprincipleofgrowthfortheruleswhichhelaiddown.