企業(yè)信息化概述

1南京理工大學(xué)機(jī)械工程學(xué)院工業(yè)工程系

?NJUSTDep.OfIndustrialEngineering企業(yè)信息化EnterpriseInformatization2參考教材：1.《企業(yè)信息化教程》韋沛文等編著清華大學(xué)出版社2.《管理信息系統(tǒng)精要》肯尼思·C·勞東編著人民大學(xué)出版社3.ManagementInformationSystems-ManagingtheDigitalFirm,12thEdition

3本課程主要內(nèi)容介紹企業(yè)信息化的基本概念，企業(yè)信息化整體解決方案、集成平臺(tái)，應(yīng)用實(shí)施等內(nèi)容，使學(xué)生掌握企業(yè)信息化相關(guān)理論，以及實(shí)施方法和支撐環(huán)境等技術(shù)，注重企業(yè)遠(yuǎn)景規(guī)劃、產(chǎn)品發(fā)展、管理變革信息技術(shù)支撐的良好匹配與協(xié)調(diào)，以適應(yīng)未來(lái)數(shù)字化企業(yè)的要求。4TheCourseHelpYouLearnNonroutineSkillsThisisthebestcourseyouchooseforlearningthesefourkeyskills.AbstractReasoningSystemsThinkingCollaborationAbilitytoExperiment5AbstractReasoningistheabilitytomakeandmanipulatemodels.Systemsthinkingistheabilitytomodelthecomponentsofthesystem,toconnecttheinputsandoutputsamongthosecomponentsintoasensiblewholethatreflectsthestructureanddynamicsofthephenomenon.

Youwillbeaskedtocritiquesystems;youwillbeaskedtocomparealternativesystems;youwillbeaskedtoapplydifferentsystemstodifferentsituations.Allofthosetaskswillprepareyouforsystemsthinkingasaprofessional.6Collaboration

istheactivityoftwoormorepeopleworkingtogethertoachieveacommongoal,result,orworkproduct.Effectivecollaborationisn’taboutbeingnice.Infact,surveysindicatethesinglemostimportantskillforeffectivecollaborationistogiveandreceivecriticalfeedback.AbilitytoExperimentSuccessfulexperimentationisnotthrowingbucketsofmoneyateverycrazyideathatentersyourhead.Instead,experimentationismakingareasonedanalysisofanopportunity,envisioningpotentialsolutions,evaluatingthosepossibilities,anddevelopingthemostpromisingones,consistentwiththeresourcesyouhave.78第1章信息系統(tǒng)概述InformationSystemsinthe2010s9主要內(nèi)容1.1PerspectivesonInformationSystems1.2PositioningITtoOptimizePerformance1.3BusinessPerformanceManagementandMeasurement1.4StrategicPlanningandCompetitiveModels1.5WhyITIsImportanttoYourCareer,andITCareers101.1PERSPECTIVESONINFORMATIONSYSTEMS1.1.1Informationinformationisknowledgederivedfromdatainformationisdatapresentedinameaningfulcontext，rmationisdataprocessedbysumming,ordering,averaging,grouping,comparing,orothersimilaroperations.具有一定意義和相互聯(lián)系的事實(shí)表達(dá)。11data？dataisdefinedasrecordedfactsorfigures.原始始、、不不相相關(guān)關(guān)的的事事實(shí)實(shí)表表達(dá)達(dá)，，是是對(duì)對(duì)客客體體或或事事件件的的測(cè)測(cè)量量或或觀(guān)觀(guān)測(cè)測(cè)值值。。12Informationissubjective，thatmeansoneperson’’sinformationmaybeanotherperson’’sdata.Figure1-113數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)和和信信息息的的關(guān)關(guān)系系信息息是是我我們們對(duì)對(duì)數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)的的解解釋釋?zhuān)蚧蛘哒哒f(shuō)說(shuō)是是數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)的的內(nèi)內(nèi)在在含含義義。。數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)經(jīng)經(jīng)過(guò)過(guò)處處理理、、建建立立相相互互關(guān)關(guān)系系并并給給予予明明確確的的意意義義后后才才成成為為信信息息。。14什么么是是知知識(shí)識(shí)？？是對(duì)對(duì)信信息息的的推推理理、、驗(yàn)驗(yàn)證證。。從從中中得得出出系系統(tǒng)統(tǒng)化化的的規(guī)規(guī)律律、、概概念念或或經(jīng)經(jīng)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)。。知識(shí)識(shí)按按性性質(zhì)質(zhì)分分類(lèi)類(lèi)know-what，關(guān)關(guān)于于事事實(shí)實(shí)方方面面的的know-why，事事物物的的客客觀(guān)觀(guān)原原理理和和規(guī)規(guī)律律性性方方面面的的，，屬屬于于科科學(xué)學(xué)方方面面的的know-how技巧巧、、技技藝藝、、能能力力方方面面的的，，屬屬于于技技術(shù)術(shù)方方面面的的know-who，特特定定的的社社會(huì)會(huì)關(guān)關(guān)系系、、社社會(huì)會(huì)分分工工和和知知道道者者的的特特長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)與與水水平平，，屬屬于于經(jīng)經(jīng)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)與與判判斷斷方方面面的的。。15前兩兩種種類(lèi)類(lèi)型型的的知知識(shí)識(shí)和和第第三三種種類(lèi)類(lèi)型型知知識(shí)識(shí)的的一一部部分分就就屬屬于于可可編編碼碼化化的的知知識(shí)識(shí)，，一一般般較較易易獲獲得得，，第第三三種種知知識(shí)識(shí)的的另另一一部部分分和和第第四四種種類(lèi)類(lèi)型型知知識(shí)識(shí)一一般般屬屬于于隱隱含含性性知知識(shí)識(shí)與與判判斷斷類(lèi)類(lèi)知知識(shí)識(shí)即即““意意會(huì)會(huì)知知識(shí)識(shí)””，，一一般般難難以以獲獲得得和和掌掌握握。。什么么是是智智慧慧？？16數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)管管理理：：對(duì)客客觀(guān)觀(guān)對(duì)對(duì)象象的的表表達(dá)達(dá)、、識(shí)識(shí)別別和和檢檢測(cè)測(cè)。。信息息管管理理：從從技技術(shù)術(shù)層層進(jìn)進(jìn)行行數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)的的存存儲(chǔ)儲(chǔ)、、傳傳輸輸、、顯顯示示使使之之發(fā)發(fā)生生增增值值等等處處理理過(guò)過(guò)程程。。知識(shí)識(shí)管管理理：利利用用知知識(shí)識(shí)的的獲獲取取方方法法（（如如數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)挖挖掘掘技技術(shù)術(shù)））與與管管理理領(lǐng)領(lǐng)域域知知識(shí)識(shí)相相結(jié)結(jié)合合進(jìn)進(jìn)行行的的創(chuàng)創(chuàng)新新。。17Allinformationisnotequal:Someinformationisbetterthanotherinformation.Figure1-218AccurateAccuracyiscrucial;managersmustbeabletorelyontheresultsoftheirinformationsystems.TheISfunctioncandevelopabadreputationintheorganizationifasystemisknowntoproduceinaccurateinformation.Insuchacase,theinformationsystembecomesawasteoftimeandmoney.Donotbemisledbyawell-formattedreport,orafancyquery,andactivegraphics.Whenyoubegintouseanewinformationsystem,beskeptical.Cross-checktheinformationyouarereceiving.19TimelyGoodinformationistimely—producedintimeforitsintendeduse.Amonthlyreportthatarrives6weekslateismostlikelyuseless.Aninformationsystemthattellsyounottoextendcredittoacustomerafteryouhaveshippedthegoodsisunhelpfulandfrustrating.NoticethattimelinesscanbemeasuredagainstacalendarYouneedtogiveappropriateandrealistictimelinessneeds.Insomecases,developingsystemsthatprovideinformationinnearrealtimeismuchmoredifficultandexpensivethanproducinginformationafewhourslater.Ifyoucangetbywithinformationthatisafewhoursold,saysoduringtherequirementsspecificationphase.20Consideranexample.Supposeyouworkinmarketingandyouneedtobeabletoassesstheeffectivenessofnewonlineadprograms.YouwantaninformationsystemthatnotonlywilldeliveradsovertheWeb,butthatalsowillenableyoutodeterminehowfrequentlycustomersclickonthoseads.Determiningclickratiosinnearrealtimewillbeveryexpensive;savingthedatainabatchandprocessingitsomehourslaterwillbemucheasierandcheaper.Ifyoucanlivewithinformationthatisadayortwoold,thesystemwillbeeasierandcheapertoimplement.21RelevantInformationshouldberelevantbothtothecontextandtothesubject.Consideringcontext,you,theCEO,needinformationthatissummarizedtoanappropriatelevelforyourjob.Alistofthehourlywageofeveryemployeeinthecompanyisunlikelytobeuseful.Morelikely,youneedaveragewageinformationbydepartmentordivision.22JustBarelySufficientInformationneedstobesufficientforthepurposeforwhichitisgenerated,butjustbarelyso.Weliveinaninformationage;oneofthecriticaldecisionsthateachofushastomakeeachdayiswhatinformationtoignore.Thehigheryouriseintomanagement,themoreinformationyouwillbegiven,and,becausethereisonlysomuchtime,themoreinformationyouwillneedtoignore.So,informationshouldbesufficient,butjustbarely.23WorthItsCostInformationisnotfree.Therearecostsfordevelopinganinformationsystem,costsofoperatingandmaintainingthatsystem,andcostsofyourtimeandsalaryforreadingandprocessingtheinformationthesystemproduces.Forinformationtobeworthitscost,anappropriaterelationshipmustexistbetweenthecostofinformationanditsvalue.Informationsystemsshouldbesubjecttothesamefinancialanalysestowhichotherassetsaresubjected.24信息的的基本本特征征真實(shí)性性。真真實(shí)性性是信信息的的第一一性，，不符符合事事實(shí)的的表述述沒(méi)有有價(jià)值值。(2)增值性性。信信息的的增值值性即即指人人們通通過(guò)利利用信信息，，可以以獲得得效益益。可可以從從時(shí)間間、內(nèi)內(nèi)容和和形式式三個(gè)個(gè)維度度，確確定人人們對(duì)對(duì)信息息的需需求，，從而而來(lái)確確定信信息的的價(jià)值值。準(zhǔn)確性性衡量信信息的的真實(shí)實(shí)性的的程度度相關(guān)性性衡量信信息是是否能能很好好地反反映用用戶(hù)所所關(guān)心心事物物運(yùn)動(dòng)動(dòng)的狀狀態(tài)和和方式式，使使用戶(hù)戶(hù)通過(guò)過(guò)信息息把握握或控控制事事物的的發(fā)展展完整性性衡量信信息所所包含含的內(nèi)內(nèi)容是是否完完整地地反映映用戶(hù)戶(hù)所關(guān)關(guān)心事事物運(yùn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的的狀態(tài)態(tài)和方方式。。信信息的的表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)形式式有多多種，，例如如表格格、圖圖形、、文字字等，，而圖圖形又又分多多種。。而選選擇表表現(xiàn)形形式需需要考考慮維維清晰晰性和和詳盡盡性。。同樣樣一種種信息息，選選擇的的表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)形式式不同同，信信息產(chǎn)產(chǎn)生的的價(jià)值值也會(huì)會(huì)不同同。及時(shí)性性反映信信息是是否能能及時(shí)時(shí)提供供給相相關(guān)的的用戶(hù)戶(hù)，新穎性性則測(cè)量量信息息是否否是及及時(shí)更更新的的。25（3）抽象象性必須區(qū)區(qū)分信信息的的載體體與內(nèi)內(nèi)容，，信息息有可可能在在不同同的載載體之之間轉(zhuǎn)轉(zhuǎn)化與與傳遞遞。需需要注注意的的是，，人們們往往往將主主要注注意力力集中中在信信息的的載體體（例例如計(jì)計(jì)算機(jī)機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)絡(luò)的建建設(shè)））或技技術(shù)手手段上上，而而忽略略了信信息的的內(nèi)容容。（4）不對(duì)稱(chēng)稱(chēng)性由于各各種原原因的的限制制（如如專(zhuān)業(yè)業(yè)知識(shí)識(shí)、市市場(chǎng)需需求、、制作作技術(shù)術(shù)等）），在在市場(chǎng)場(chǎng)中交交易的的雙方方所掌掌握的的信息息是極極不相相等的的，買(mǎi)買(mǎi)賣(mài)雙雙方掌掌握信信息的的程度度各有有不同同，這這就形形成了了信息息的不不對(duì)稱(chēng)稱(chēng)。26（5）滯滯后性性信息滯滯后于于數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)。信信息的的滯后后時(shí)間間包括括信息息的間間隔時(shí)時(shí)間和和加工工時(shí)間間。信息的的間隔隔時(shí)間間是指指獲取取同一一信息息的必必要間間隔時(shí)時(shí)間。。信息的的加工工時(shí)間間是指指獲取取某信信息由由數(shù)據(jù)據(jù)加工工所需需要的的加工工時(shí)間間。管理信信息系系統(tǒng)的的一個(gè)個(gè)基本本目標(biāo)標(biāo)就是是要縮縮短數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)的的加工工時(shí)間間。27（6）有效性性信息的增值值性只表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)在一定的的時(shí)間內(nèi)。。過(guò)了這個(gè)個(gè)時(shí)期，信信息就不會(huì)會(huì)產(chǎn)生效益益，即信息息的有效性性。信息如同一一種產(chǎn)品，，具有其生生命周期。。信息的生生命周期即即指信息從從產(chǎn)生、收收集、加工工、傳輸、、使用到失失效的全過(guò)過(guò)程。28（7）共享性性信息不同于于與其他物物質(zhì)資源，，它具有共共享性，不不具有獨(dú)占占性，在同同一時(shí)間可可以為多人人所掌握。。這種共享享是一種非非零和的共共享，即共共享的諸方方受益、受受損是不確確定的，各各方因同一一信息而獲獲得的增值值并不等于于少數(shù)方獨(dú)獨(dú)占該信息息所獲得的的增值。29（8）可擴(kuò)散散性信息的可擴(kuò)擴(kuò)散具有兩兩種效應(yīng)：：正效應(yīng)是利利于知識(shí)的的擴(kuò)散，節(jié)節(jié)省人力、、資金等資資源的消耗耗；負(fù)效應(yīng)造成成信息的貶貶值，不利利于信息的的保密。要注重信息息的保密性性，減少信信息的擴(kuò)散散的負(fù)效應(yīng)應(yīng)。在企業(yè)業(yè)內(nèi)部，要要充分利用用信息的共共享性，在在信息有效效的時(shí)間內(nèi)內(nèi)，在內(nèi)部部快速擴(kuò)散散，對(duì)外部部則應(yīng)該抑抑制信息擴(kuò)擴(kuò)散的負(fù)效效應(yīng)。30（9）信息的的粒度（granularity）粒度用來(lái)度度量信息的的詳細(xì)程度度。為信息的使使用者提供供不同粒度度的信息有有助于他們們能更好地地把握事物物運(yùn)動(dòng)的狀狀態(tài)和方式式。柳州產(chǎn)品品系列產(chǎn)品組組規(guī)格F5M42地區(qū)區(qū)國(guó)外國(guó)內(nèi)大區(qū)省份城市時(shí)間間年-季-月-周-日4G63MPI4G64R5M214G63CARB上海廣州一季二季三季四季銷(xiāo)售量沈陽(yáng)長(zhǎng)春福州1.1.3InformationSystemsandInformationTechnology:CoreConceptsAninformationsystem(IS)collects,processes,stores,analyzes,anddistributesinformationforaspecificpurposeorobjective.Input.Dataandinformationaboutbusinesstransactionsarecapturedorcollectedbypoint-of-sale(POS)scannersandWebsitesandreceivedbyotherinputdevices.Processing.Dataistransformed,converted,andanalyzedforstorageortransfertoanoutputdevice.Output.Data,information,reports,andsoonaredistributedtodigitalscreensorhardcopy(paper),sentasaudio,ortransferredtootherISsviacommunicationnetworks.Feedback.Afeedbackmechanismmonitorsandcontrolsoperations.3132ManagementInformationSystems(MIS)thedevelopmentanduseofinformationsystemsthathelpbusinessesachievetheirgoalsandobjectives.Thisdefinitionhasthreekeyelements:developmentanduse,informationsystems,andbusinessgoalsandobjectives.33InformationSystem(IS)isanassemblyofhardware,software,data,procedures,andpeoplethatproducesinformation.FiveComponentsofanInformationSystem34Figure1-435Thesefivecomponentsaresymmetrical.Theoutermostcomponents,hardwareandpeople,arebothactors;theycantakeactions.Thesoftwareandprocedurecomponentsarebothsetsofinstructions:Softwareisinstructionforhardware,andproceduresareinstructionsforpeople.Finally,dataisthebridgebetweenthecomputersideontheleftandthehumansideontheright.Now,whenweautomateabusinessprocess,wetakeworkthatpeoplearedoingbyfollowingproceduresandmoveitsothatcomputerswilldothatwork,followinginstructionsinthesoftware.Thus,theprocessofautomationisaprocessofmovingworkfromtherightsidetotheleft.36Abusinessisnotalive,anditcannotact.Itisthepeoplewithinabusinesswhosell,buy,design,produce,finance,market,account,andmanage.So,informationsystemsexisttohelppeoplewhoworkinabusinesstoachievethegoalsandobjectivesofthatbusiness.37BusinessProcessesInformationProcessingActivitiesBusinessValueManagementActivitiesSupplyChainManagementEnterpriseManagementCustomerManagementKnowledgeManagementDataCollectionandStorageTransformationIntoBusinessSystemsDisseminationPlanningCoordinatingControllingModelingandDecisionMakingFirmProfitabilityandStrategicPositionABusinessPerspectiveonInformationSystemsFigure1-538InformationsystemsaremorethancomputersORGANIZATIONSTECHNOLOGYMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSFigure1-639ORGANIZATIONSInformationsystemsareanintegralpartoforganizations.Thekeyelementsofanorganizationareitspeople,structure,businessprocesses,politics,andculture.Organizationsarecomposedofdifferentlevelsandspecialties.Expertsareemployedandtrainedfordifferentfunctions.Themajorbusinessfunctionsperformedbybusinessorganizations,consistofsalesandmarketing,manufacturingandproduction,financeandaccounting,andhumanresources.40Anorganizationcoordinatesworkthroughastructuredhierarchyandthroughitsbusinessprocesses.Thehierarchyarrangespeopleinapyramidstructureofrisingauthorityandresponsibility.Theupperlevelsofthehierarchyconsistofmanagerial,professional,andtechnicalemployees,whereasthelowerlevelsconsistofoperationalpersonnel.41Mostorganizations’businessprocessesincludeformalrulesthathavebeendevelopedoveralongtimeforaccomplishingtasks.Theserulesguideemployeesinavarietyofprocedures.Manybusinessprocessesareincorporatedintoinformationsystems.Organizationsrequiremanydifferentkindsofskillsandpeople.Inadditiontomanagers,knowledgeworkersdesignproductsorservicesandcreatenewknowledge,anddataworkersprocesstheorganization’spaperwork.Productionorserviceworkersactuallyproducetheorganization’’sproductsorservices.Eachorganizationhasauniqueculture,orfundamentalsetofassumptions,values,andwaysofdoingthings,thathasbeenacceptedbymostofitsmembers.Partsofanorganization’’sculturecanalwaysbefoundembeddedinitsinformationsystems.42MANAGEMENTManagement’’sjobistomakesenseoutofthemanysituationsfacedbyorganizations,makedecisions,andformulateactionplanstosolveorganizationalproblems.Managersallocatethehumanandfinancialresourcestocoordinatetheworkandachievesuccess.Butmanagersmustdomorethanmanagewhatalreadyexists.Theymustalsocreatenewproductsandservices.Asubstantialpartofmanagementresponsibilityiscreativeworkdrivenbynewknowledgeandinformation.Informationtechnologycanplayapowerfulroleinredirectingandredesigningtheorganization.43Managerialrolesanddecisionsvaryatdifferentlevelsoftheorganization.Seniormanagersmakelong-rangestrategicdecisionsaboutwhatproductsandservicestoproduce.Middlemanagerscarryouttheprogramsandplansofseniormanagement.Operationalmanagersareresponsibleformonitoringthefirm’sdailyactivities.Eachlevelofmanagementhasdifferentinformationneedsandinformationsystemrequirements.44TECHNOLOGYInformationtechnologyisoneofmanytoolsmanagersusetocopewithchange.ComputerhardwareSoftwarestoragetechnologyCommunicationstechnology45TheInternethascreatedanew“universal”technologyplatformonwhichtobuildallsortsofnewproducts,services,strategies,andbusinessmodels.Thissametechnologyplatformhasinternaluses,providingtheconnectivitytolinkdifferentsystemsandnetworkswithinthefirm.InternalcorporatenetworksbasedonInternettechnologyarecalledintranets.Privateintranetsextendedtoauthorizedusersoutsidetheorganizationarecalledextranets,andfirmsusesuchnetworkstocoordinatetheiractivitieswithotherfirmsformakingpurchases,collaboratingondesign,andotherinterorganizationalwork.46InformationTechnology(IT)referstoallofthecomputer-basedinformationsystemsusedbyorganizationsandtheirunderlyingtechnologies（theproducts,methods,inventions,andstandardsthatareusedforthepurposeofproducinginformation.）Informationtechnologiesandsystemsarerevolutionizingtheoperationoffirms,industries,andmarkets.ThebusinessvalueofITisdeterminedisdeterminedbytherelationshipsamongISs,people,andbusinessprocesses——allofwhichareinfluencedstronglybyorganizationalculture.47MajorCapabilitiesofISsandSupportedBusinessObjectivesPerformhigh-speed,high-volume,numericalcomputations?Providefast,accuratecommunicationandcollaborationunrestrictedbytimeandlocation?StorehugeamountsofinformationthatisaccessibleviaprivatenetworksandtheInternet?Automatesemiautomaticbusinessprocessesandmanuallydonetasks.?EnableautomationofroutinedecisionmakingandfacilitatecomplexdecisionmakingIScapabilitiessupportthesebusinessobjectives:?Improveproductivity(productivityisameasurementortheratioofinputstooutputs)?Reducecostsandwaste?Improvetheabilitytomakeinformeddecisions?Facilitatecollaboration?Enhancecustomerrelationships?Developnewanalyticcapabilities?Providefeedbackonperformance4849CONTEMPORARYAPPROACHESTOINFORMATIONSYSTEMSTechnicalApproachesBehavioralApproachesManagementScienceOperationsResearchSociologyEconomicsComputerSciencePsychologyThetechnicalapproachtoinformationsystemsemphasizesmathematicallybasedmodelstostudyinformationsystem.Computerscienceisconcernedwithestablishingtheoriesofcomputability,methodsofcomputation,andmodelsofefficientdatastorageandaccess..Managementscienceemphasizesthedevelopmentofmodelsfordecision-makingandmanagementpractices.Behavioralissuesincludestrategicbusinessintegration,design,implementation,utilization,andmanagement.Operationsresearchfocusesonmathematicaltechniquesforoptimizingselectedparametersoforganizations,suchastransportation,inventorycontrol,,andtransactioncosts.1.2PositioningITtoOptimizePerformanceDuringthe2010s,managersareexploringnewstrategiestoimprovebusinessperformance,orprofitability.Oneapproachistodeveloptheagilityneededtoidentifyandcaptureopportunitiesmorequicklythanrivals.Organizationscanbenefitfromopportunitiesmadepossiblebyhighperformancemobiledevicesandhigh-speedmobiletelecommunicationnetworks.Examplesarethe3Gand4Gnetworksofcellularserviceproviders.Mobiletechnologyhastorndownthewallsbetweenourbusiness,professional,andpersonallives.50OrganizationsdependonITtobeabletoadapttomarketconditionsandgainacompetitiveedge.Thatcompetitiveadvantageisshort-livedifcompetitorsquicklyduplicateit.Noadvantageisverylong-lasting.Therefore,companiesneedtoupgrade,develop,and/ordeploynewISstoremaininthecompetitivegame.Duringthelastdecade,companieswereadaptingtosocialnetworking,andbecameextensionsofbusinessestoreachcustomers,prospects,andbusinesspartners.51Abusinessmodelisamethodofdoingbusinessbywhichacompanycangeneratesalesrevenueandprofittosustainitself.Themodelspellsouthowthecompanycreatesoraddsvalueintermsofthegoodsorservicesthecompanyproduces.Somemodelsareverysimple.Forexample,Applemakesandsellscellphonesandgeneratesprofitfromthesesales.Ontheotherhand,aTVstationprovidesfreebroadcasting.Itssurvivaldependsonacomplexmodelinvolvingfactorssuchasadvertisersandcontentproviders.52Acomprehensivebusinessmodeliscomposedofthesesixelements:1.Adescriptionofallproductsandservicesthebusinesswilloffer2.Adescriptionofthebusinessprocessrequiredtomakeanddelivertheproductsandservices3.Adescriptionofthecustomerstobeservedandthecompany’srelationshipswiththesecustomers,includingwhatconstitutesvaluefromcustomers’perspective(customers’valueproposition)53Acomprehensivebusinessmodeliscomposedofthesesixelements:4.Alistoftheresourcesrequiredandtheidentificationofwhichonesareavailable,whichwillbedevelopedin-house,andwhichwillneedtobeacquired5.Adescriptionoftheorganization’’ssupplychain,includingsuppliersandotherbusinesspartners6.Adescriptionoftherevenuesexpected(revenuemodel),anticipatedcosts,sourcesoffinancing,andestimatedprofitability(financialviability)541.3BusinessPerformanceManagementandMeasurementPerformanceismeasuredbyhowwellthosegoalsandobjectivesaremet.Despitehowsimplethissounds,measuringbusiness(ororganizational)performanceisextremelychallenging.Howdoyoumanageperformance?Assumethatacompany’’sgoalsareincreasedsalesandimprovedcustomerloyalty.Salesrevenueisarathereasy-to-calculatequantitativemetric.Incontrast,customerloyaltyisaqualitativemetricandprobablyhasalongertimedimension.Youcanimmediatelyknowhowmuchcustomershavepurchasedonaparticularday,butnothowmanycustomersyou’’velostthatday.55Inordertomanageperformance,twofundamentalrequirementsare:（1）Beingabletomeasure.Youcannotmanagewhatyoucannotmeasure.Statedinreverse,ifyoucannotmeasureaprocess,youcannotmanageorcontrolit.Tobereliable,““measuring”needstobefact-basedand/ordata-driven.Otherwise,managersaremakingdecisionsbasedonconditionsofuncertainty.Themoreaccurateandtimelythedata,thebettertheabilitytomeasure.56（2）Knowingthatyourindicatorismeasuringtherightthing.Measuringperformancerequires:IdentifyingthemostmeaningfulmeasuresofperformanceBeingabletomeasurethemcorrectlySelectingthesetofmeasuresthatprovidesaholisticindicatoroftotalbusinessperformanceIdentifyingwhoshouldreceivethereportsandinwhattimeframe57PerformanceMeasurementProcess.Measuringperformanceisamultistepcyclicalprocess.Themajorstepsinbusinessperformancemanagementare:Step1.Decideondesiredperformancelevels.Namely:Whatdoesthecompanywanttoachieve?Suchtargetsaredecideduponandexpressedasgoalsandobjectives,basedontheorganization’smission.Also,specificmetricsshouldbesetfordesirableandmeasurableperformancetopicssothatthecompanycanevaluateitssuccess.Step2.Determinehowtoattaintheperformancelevels.Theissueis:Howtogetthere?Thisisdeterminedbythecorporatestrategiesandspecificshort-,medium-,andlong-termplans.58Step3.Periodicallyassesswheretheorganizationstandswithrespecttoitsgoals,objectives,andmeasures.Theissuehereistofind:Howarewedoing?ThisisaccomplishedbymonitoringperformanceandcomparingittothevaluessetinStep1.Step4.Adjustperformanceand/orgoals.Ifperformanceistoolow——thatis,thereisanegativegapbetweenwherewewanttobeandwhereweare——correctiveactionsneedtobetaken:Howdoweclosethegap?59BusinessEnvironmentalPressures.Thebusinessenvironmentconsistsofavarietyoffactors—societal,legal,political,technological,andeconomic.ImpactofBusinessEnvironmentFactors.Thebusinessenvironmentfactorscanimpacttheperformanceofindividuals,departments,andentireorganizations.Somefactorscreateconstraints,whileotherscostagreatdealofmoneyordiverteffortsawayfromthebusiness.NewlawsandregulationsalmostalwaysinvolvetheimplementationofnewISsforcompliance,especiallyduringthefirstyearsaftertheygointoeffect.6061621.4StrategicPlanningandCompetitiveModelsIngeneral,strategicanalysisisthescanningandreviewofthepolitical,social,economic,andtechnicalenvironmentoftheorganization.Thepurposeofthisanalysisoftheenvironment,competition,andcapacityistolearnaboutthestrengths,weaknesses,opportunities,andthreats(SWOT)oftheexpansionplanbeingconsidered.SWOTanalysis,asitiscalled,involvestheevaluationofstrengthsandweaknesses,whichareinternalfactors,andopportunitiesandthreats,whichareexternalfactors.63Examplesare:Strengths:reliableprocesses;agility;motivatedworkforceWeaknesses:lackofexpertise;competitorswithbetterITinfrastructureOpportunities:adevelopingmarket;abilitytocreateanewmarketorproductThreats:pricewarsorotherfiercereactionbycompetitors;obsolescence64SWOTisonlyaguideandshouldbeusedtogetherwithothertoolssuchasPorter’sfive-forcesanalysismodel.SWOTanalysisisoftendoneattheoutsetofthestrategicplanningprocessStrategicplanningisaseriesofprocessesinwhichanorganizationselectsandarrangesitsbusinessesorservicestokeeptheorganizationviableevenwhenunexpectedeventsdisruptoneormoreofitsbusinesses,markets,products,orservices.Strategicplanninginvolvesenvironmentalscanningandprediction,orSWOTanalysis,foreachbusinessrelativetocompetitorsinthatbusiness’smarketorproductline.65Strategydefinestheplanforhowabusinesswillachieveitsmission,goals,andobjectives.Itspecifiesthenecessaryfinancialrequirements,budgets,andresources.Strategyaddressesfundamentalissuessuchasthecompany’spositioninitsindustry,itsavailableresourcesandoptions,andfuturedirections.Astrategyaddressesquestionssuchas:Whatisthelong-termdirectionofourbusiness?Whatistheoverallplanfordeployingourresources?Whattrade-offsarenecessary?Whatresourceswillitneedtoshare?Whatisourpositionvis-à-viscompetitors?Howdoweachievecompetitiveadvantageoverrivalsinordertoachieveormaximizeprofitability?66PORTER’SCOMPETITIVEFORCESMODELANDSTRATEGIESMichaelPorter’scompetitiveforcesmodel,alsocalledthefive-forcesmodel,hasbeenusedtodevelopstrategiesforcompaniestoidentifytheircompetitiveedge.ThemodelalsodemonstrateshowITcanenhancecompetitivenessAccordingtoPorter’scompetitiveforcesmodel,therearefivemajorforcesinanindustrythataffectthedegreeofcompetitionandthusimpactprofitmarginsandultimatelyprofitability.Theseforcesinteract,soalthoughyouwillreadaboutthemindividually,itistheirinteractionthatdeterminestheindustry’sprofitpotential.67Forexample,whileprofitmarginsforpizzeriasmaybesmall,theeaseofenteringthatindustrydrawsnewentrantsintoit.Conversely,profitmarginsfordeliveryservicesmaybelarge,butthecostoftheITtosupporttheserviceisahugebarriertoentryintothemarket.68Anexplanationofthefiveindustry(market)forces.69Threatofentryofnewcompetitors.Industrieswithlargeprofitmarginsattractmorecompetitors(calledentrants)intothemarketthandoindustrieswithsmallprofitmargins.It’’sthesameprinciplethatappliestojobs——peopleareattractedtohigher-payingjobs,providedthattheycanmeetoracquirethecriteriaforthatjob.Inordertogainmarketshare,entrantstypicallysellatlowerpricesoroffersomeincentive.Thosecompaniesalreadyintheindustrymaybeforcedtodefendtheirmarketsharebyloweringprices,whichreducestheirprofitmargin.Thus,thisthreatputsdownwardpressureonprofitmarginsbydrivingpricesdown.70Thisforcealsoreferstothestrengthofthebarrierstoentryintoanindustry,whichishoweasyitistoenteranindustry.Thethreatofentryislower(lesspowerful)whenexistingcompanieshaveISsthataredifficulttoduplicateorveryexpensive.ThoseISscreatebarrierstoentrythatreducethethreatofentry.712.Bargainingpowerofsuppliers.Bargainingpowerishighwherethesupplierorbrandispowerful;forexample,Apple,Microsoft,andautomanufacturers.Powerisdeterminedbyhowmuchacompanypurchasesfromasupplier.Themorepowerfulcompanyhastheleveragetodemandbetterpricesorterms,whichincreaseitsprofitmargin.Conversely,supplierswithverylittlebargainingpowertendtohavesmallprofitmargins.723.Bargainingpowerofcustomersorbuyers.Thisforceisthereverseofthebargainingpowerofsuppliers.ExamplesareDellComputers,Walmart,andgovernments.Thisforceishighwherethereafewlargecustomersorbuyersinamarket.4.Threatofsubstituteproductsorservices.Wherethereisproduct-for-productsubstitution,suchase-mailforfax,thereisdownwardpressureonprices.Asthethreatofsubstitutesincreases,profitmargindecreasesbecausesellersneedtokeeppricescompetitivelylow.735.Competitiverivalryamongexistingfirmsintheindustry.Fiercecompetitioninvolvesexpensiveadvertisingandpromotions,intenseinvestmentsinresearchanddevelopment(R&D),orothereffortsthatcutintoprofitmargins.Thisforceismostlikelytobehigh