大學英語重點grammar1

EnglishGrammarCAIYIQIANG蔡以強WelcometothiscourseCourseassessmentA.平時成績

在總評成績中所占比例為40%。一般為上課的出勤情況、學習的態(tài)度，課堂表現(xiàn)、平時作業(yè)和/或合（協(xié)）作精神等。B.期末考試:60%RequirementsConductyourselfinanmaturemanneracceptableinandappropriatetoanadultclassroomandlearningenvironment;Regularattendance(Inordertoprovidethebestpossiblelearningenvironmentforallthepeopleinvolved,youshouldattendallthescheduledclasssessions.Absenceswillbepermittedonlyforreasonsacceptableunderthegeneralschoolpolicy;youshouldbeinclassroomandgetreadytobeginworkattheappointedstartingtime.Repeatedabsencesandlatenessarenotdesirable,likelytoresultinpoorgrade);Takenoteswheneverpossible;Youshouldsubmit,ontimeandintherequiredform,yourassignments,testsandexercisesrequiredofyou;Feelfreetoaskquestionsandmakesuggestions;Independentaccomplishmentofassignments;Readyresponsetofeedbackcommentsfromtheteacheroryourpeers;Activeparticipationinclassroomactivitiesandcooperativeprojects,suchasdiscussionandpresentation.Allinall,youshallbeassessedasperyour1)performanceinclasssessions,thequalityandcompletionofassignmentsifany,2)participationandcommitmenttotheclass,3)resultsonexaminations.

Lecture1IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarStudy

I.學習英語語法的必要性1.英語語法的內(nèi)涵英語語法就是關(guān)于形態(tài)變化和語言結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)范。/語法是語言組織規(guī)律的學問?，F(xiàn)代英語語法具有兩個特點：突破句子界限，開辟了話語和語篇結(jié)構(gòu)分析；語法研究深入到了語義和語用層面。2.語法與語言學習和運用的關(guān)系Swain指出，交際能力應(yīng)包括社會語言能力、話語能力、策略能力和語法能力。GeoffThompson認為，那種一提到交際法就覺得是不講語法規(guī)則的認識是對交際法的誤解。他說：“學語言必須學習語法是不言而喻的常識，這一點在前幾年受到質(zhì)疑是不可思議的?！彼M一步認為，應(yīng)有一定的課堂時間用來學習語法。Wilkins和Canale等學者都指出，只有掌握了語法知識才能保證語言創(chuàng)造性能力的發(fā)展，缺乏語法知識就會限制語言創(chuàng)造能力的發(fā)展。換言之，掌握好所學語言的語法規(guī)則是培養(yǎng)交際能力的基礎(chǔ)。

以寫作來說，同一個意思可以借助多種多樣的語言形式來表達。如果寫作者善于捕捉變體的機會，他就能最大限度地利用語言的表達潛力而不局限于陳規(guī)俗套和呆板句式，深刻體會到英語語法中五彩繽紛的選擇余地（見下例），就意味著具備在寫作中交替利用這些機會以達到不同修辭效果的強烈意識。1.ItisthefeelingofthePresidentthatthereareenormousresponsibilitieswhicharetobeassumedwithanofficeofpublictrust.←→ThePresidentfeelsthatagovernmenthasgreatresponsibilities…2.Doctorsofmedicineareofthesameopinionthatexcessiveconsumptionoffoodwillcausethedeteriorationofman’sphysicalconstitution.←→Overeating,thedoctorsagree,isharmfultohealth.3.Itwasn’tthatdifficult.Thetruthisthatwehadaball(slang).4.Itwon’tcostyouanarmandaleg.5.這一決策對增強信心、克服困難、穩(wěn)定經(jīng)濟正發(fā)揮著積極重要的作用。表述1）Thispolicystrengthenedconfidenceagainstdifficultiesandstabilizedeconomy,withpositiveimpacts.表述2）Thispolicyhasapositiveeffectonstrengthenedpublicconfidenceandstabilized….我們完全可以這么講，培養(yǎng)語言交際能力是目的，而掌握好語法規(guī)則是手段。因此，就讓語法發(fā)揮兩大作用：促進理解；監(jiān)控輸出。3.外語學習外語學習與母語不同，因為外語學習者一般只有有限的時間和精力學習外語，又缺少使用外語的現(xiàn)實環(huán)境—自然習得環(huán)境，但他們卻可以通過掌握語法規(guī)則來指導自己理解語法系統(tǒng)的規(guī)律性和所學外語的特點。隨著對語言現(xiàn)象認識的深入，研究者們發(fā)現(xiàn)目標語中有些結(jié)構(gòu)、規(guī)則是該語言特有的，必須通過語法學習才能掌握?，F(xiàn)在盛行的交際教學法也將語法教學納入其組成部分。

4.現(xiàn)狀高校英語專業(yè)培養(yǎng)的人才，應(yīng)具有扎實的聽、說、讀、寫、譯的能力，這些能力不僅包括語言表達的流利性，更包括表達的準確性。傳統(tǒng)的語法翻譯法為了追求準確性，過分強調(diào)語法規(guī)則的灌輸，犧牲了語言的流利程度。隨后有學者如Krashan認為語法知識必須在與目標語的接觸中潛意識地習得，不主張有意識地學習語法。事實證明這一做法有些矯枉過正?，F(xiàn)在的學習者開得了口，但往往錯誤百出。二語學習者尤其如此。大多數(shù)語法教材仍然停留在羅列語法規(guī)則的階段，而不是以有意義的方式告訴學生在何時、何地、何種場合下使用哪些規(guī)則，也不講明在某種情況下某種語言形式具有特有的意義。這些規(guī)則不單單是通過記憶就可以習得掌握好的。II．語法教學的過程1.語法學習方法介紹

語法課旨在幫助學生喚起語法意識、梳理原有的知識，進一步介紹知識，指導學生進行歸納總結(jié)，進而對英語語法有一個系統(tǒng)的掌握，提高其語法運用的能力。2.呈現(xiàn)語言點這一方法旨在有意識地引導學生認識英語的某些特征。一般從學生熟悉的、可理解的材料入手，并逐漸過渡到不熟悉的形式。語法教學可用如下幾個步驟進行。填充法LastnightImetGeorge---youknow,theboy___wasatschoolwithmeyearsago.Well,helivesinthecountrynow,inavillage____isnotfarfromNottingham.Andhe’smarriedLiz,thegirl___fatherhadthatsmallshopinLexingtonAvenue…anyway,Georgehasboughtacottage,___costhimafortuneand___heisgoingtoopenaguesthouse.(2)轉(zhuǎn)換法主動→被動；限定句→非限定句；陳述句→倒裝句→存在句(3)造句法(4)辨識法：找出特定的語言現(xiàn)象(5)討論分析法本步驟旨在把潛意識的、零星的語法信息提升為有意識的、系統(tǒng)的能力。采用以老師為主導、以學生為中心的方法。(6)練習運用法1)口頭方式2)綜合方式綜合方式包括轉(zhuǎn)換練習、情景會話（roleplay）、合句練習（見下）等。WaldenPondisnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows.Itmadeairconditioningunnecessary.Itmadealightblanketwelcome.→WaldenPond,oncepraisedbyThoreauforitsnaturalbeauty,isnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows,makingairconditioningunnecessaryandalightblanketwelcome.(Sweepingthroughourbedroomsalmosteverysummernight,thecoolingnortheastwindmade…3.英漢比較呂叔湘先生曾經(jīng)指出：“一種事物的特點，要跟別的事物比較才能顯現(xiàn)出來。拿漢語和英語比較，漢語的特點和英語的特點就都顯現(xiàn)出來了。這種比較，對于教學很有用。”通過比較，學習者知道在那些方面容易受到干擾，容易出錯，從而幫助學習者使用英語，如翻譯、寫作等。例如：①Lookingoutofthewindow,thegrasslandstretchesasfarastheeyecanreach.②Onenteringtheclassroom,thestudentsstoodupandsaid,“Goodmorning,Sir.”③Shewasacceptednotbecausebutinspiteofherbirth.她不是因為她的出身而被接受，也非因為她的出身而被拒絕。④Itserveshimright.⑤Mr.Priestleyisgivinghisstudentsalesson.⑥JohnisnowwithhisparentsinNewYork;itisalreadythreeyearssincehewasabandmaster.(since從句中的過去式was是指一種狀態(tài)的結(jié)束。)。。。他不再任樂隊指揮已經(jīng)三年了。（1）英漢相異之處語言負載文化的同時受文化的制約，其中就包括不同民族思維方式對語法的制約(Johnwasafoolfordanger./Aseriesofmisfortunevisitedthefamily.)，主要體現(xiàn)在語法范疇的差異和句法的差異這兩個層次上。例如，英語的語法范疇中有：性、數(shù)、人稱、時、體、態(tài)等，而且都有明顯的形式標記，漢語則主要借助詞匯手段和語序來表達這些概念。在句法方面，英語有較強的形式邏輯特點，句式的完整性、句法的標記性，與漢語反映整合思維的流水句、意合法結(jié)構(gòu)有相當大的差異。非下苦功夫不可。（約翰天不怕地不怕的。）請看下面一篇無多少生詞的短文：DianeDisneyMillerrecallsasurprisingdiscoveryshemadeasachild:Ididn’trealizewhatmyfatherdidforalivinguntilIwassix.Thenaplaymateatschooltoldme.ThatnightwhenFathercamehome,hefloppeddownintohiseasychair.Iapproachedhimwithawe.Hedidn’tlookfamoustome.Iasked,“AreyouWaltDisney?”“YouknowIam,”hesaid.“TheWaltDisney?”Iinsisted.Helookedstartled;thenhegrinnedandnodded.WhereuponIsaidthefivewordshemusthavethoughthewassafefrominthebosomofhisfamily:“Pleasegivemeyourautograph.”問題：⑴DianeDisneyMiller是WaltDisney的什么人？⑵根據(jù)上下文，WaltDisney何許人也？----他女兒。/----有名的人，蓋因“我滿懷敬畏地走到他跟前。但是看來他不像個有名之人?！边@兩句。⑶為什么WaltDisneylookedstartled?他怕的是什么？為何他以為在家里就safefromthefivewords?再看名定實狀之例：Thequalityandquantityofmerchandiseshipped,althoughspecifiedinthedocumentssubmittedtothebankasrequiredbytheletterofcreditterms,ultimatelydependsonthehonestyandintegrityofthesellerwhohasmanufactured,packaged,andarrangedforshipmentofthemerchandise./Youmustexcuseus,doctor,wehaveherinthekitchenwhereitiswarm.（2）語言意識：ANewPerspectiveonGrammarTeaching

Theroleofgrammariscontroversialinlanguagepedagogy.DifferentELTpractitionershavedifferentviewsonit.Grammarusedtobethemainfocusinthegrammar-translationmethodandtheaudio-lingualmethod.TheriseofCommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasreduceditsrolesincethe1970.Formanyyears,grammarhasbeenneglectedintheEnglishclassroom.

NowthependulumhasswungbackagainbecauseoftherecognitionoftheweaknessintheCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Acallforgrammarasthe“theFacilitator”hasbeensuggested.Inotherwords,anewgrammarteachingapproachisneededtomakegrammarameanstolanguageacquisition.Inrecentyears,theAwareness-raisingapproachhasbeensuggestedasaninnovationonlanguageteaching.LanguageAwareness(LA)aimstodevelopaperson’ssensitivitytoandawarenessoflanguage,tounderstandhowlanguagerelatestothemostcentralactivitiesinourlifefromlearningtothinkingandtosocialrelationship,andtobuilduptheabilitytoviewalanguageobjectivelyasaphenomenon.LAmayactasabridgetobetterlanguagelearningandasaprerequisiteforefficientlanguagestudy.Inotherwords,LAisabletoserveasaprincipledprocessormechanismthatwillallowstudentstocapitalizeontheirknowledgeofEnglishforcommunicatingandlearningpurposes.Studentsareexpectedtodevelop:1)explicitandconsciousattentiontothesystematicorganizationoflanguage;2)explicitandconsciousknowledgeandskillsofthesourceoftheirexperienceoflanguage;3)powerfulobservationandanalysisoflanguage.CartersuggeststhatLAteachingneedstoinvolveatleast:1)awarenessofpropertiesoflanguageincludingitscreativityanddoublemeanings;2)awarenessoftheembeddingoflanguagewithinculture,thatis,tolearnaboutthelanguage,forexampleidiomsandmetaphorscanrevealalotabouttheculture;3)awarenessofthecloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandideology,thatis,toseehowdifferentlanguagechoicesencodedifferentideologies;4)agreaterself-consciousnessabouttheformsofthelanguageinuse,andtorecognizetherelationsbetweentheformsandmeaningofalanguage.TheAwareness-raisingapproachisdesignedtomakestudentsmoresensitivetogrammarinuse,moreactiveingrammarlearning;moreattentivetogrammaticalfeaturesinlanguageuse.（3）錯誤例示1）InspiteofthefrequentinterruptionImanagedtosticktotheprogram./Thelivelychatwaspunctuatedbyshoutsandlaughters.---burstsoflaughter/ItisonlyinrecentyearsthatChinalags--laggedbehind.2）Theteacherwouldbehappyifyoumadeprogress,whileyouwouldbecriticizedifyoudidn’t.3）Wehavealottocomplainandregret./Thisisagoodplacetoliveinandstudy.4）Thishopeofminewasnotrealizedatmygraduationfromtheuniversity.5）Ihopetomakesomeperceptibleprogressinthenextfiveyears,eachyearreachinganewgoal.1）詞形錯誤；2）虛詞錯誤；3）及物與不及物；4）選詞錯誤；5）主語錯誤意義錯誤1）對象錯誤：Wehavealargepopulationtorear.2）內(nèi)涵錯誤：IhavegrownallergictousageofEnglish./ThenecessitywillcompelmetoraisetheChineselevel/Owingtomyfather,Ihadagoodpre-schooleducation.(4)語法教學的任務(wù)型設(shè)計1）語法化任務(wù)(grammaticalization)選取新聞標題，讓學生理解并用一兩句符合英語語法規(guī)則的完整句概括新聞內(nèi)容作為新聞導語，然后讓他們對照原新聞導語，分析比較兩種版本的語法結(jié)構(gòu)的異同。Good-lookingDoBetterinExams---TheSundayTimes,July9,2006→Beautymaybemorethanskindeepafterall.Newresearchsuggeststhatgood-lookingpeopledobetterinexamsandthusprobablyinlaterlife,thantheplainordownrightugly.分析：常用一般現(xiàn)在時、將來時和現(xiàn)在進行時；被動意義由過去分詞直接表示，常省略一些成分。2）短文聽寫與重建3）句子組合改寫任務(wù)：將一篇或一段簡單句文字組合成復雜句，不改變原意。如《英語學習》2003.7一輕松讀物名為TheUnfortunateThief。老師可先將其改為簡單句：①Carllosthisjob.Hetriedtofindanotherone.Itwasn’teasy.Thepoorfellowcouldn’tpayhisbills.Hehadsolittlemoney.Hecouldn’taskanybodytolendhim.②Carlspenthisdaysathome.Helookedoutofthewindow.Hewatchedhisneighour’shouse.Anoldprofessorlivedtherealone.Henevertalkedtohisneighbours.Carlcouldseeintotheprofessor’shouse.Theprofessorneverdrewthecurtain.Theprofessor’sroomswerefullofantiquefurnitureandvases.原文：Carllosthisjob.Hetriedtofindanotheronebutitwasn’teasy.Thepoorfellowcouldn’tpayhisbillsbecausehehadsolittlemoney,andhecouldn’taskanybodytolendhim.Carl,spendinghisdaysathome,lookedoutofthewindowandwatchedhisneighbour’shouse.Anoldprofessorlivedtherealone.Henevertalkedtohisneighbours.Carlcouldseeintotheprofessor’shousebecauseheneverdrewthecurtain.Theroomswerefullofantiquefurnitureandvases.4）短文改寫5)發(fā)現(xiàn)法：教師引導下的“發(fā)現(xiàn)法”←→“教師講解法”。通過上下文教授語法比對語法進行講解和操練更加可取?！缎赂拍钣⒄Z》（1997）可以說是把語法教學與課文教學最有效地結(jié)合起來的典范。它用一個個有趣的小故事、生動的情節(jié)把原本枯燥無味的語法點串起來，一個小故事重點介紹一個語法點，使學習者在情景、意義、趣味中體會言語的用法。(5)任務(wù)式英語語法教學I.意義：Widdowson在AspectsofLanguageTeaching（1990）中指出，語法是協(xié)調(diào)詞匯和語境的一種工具。Cullen在TeachingEnglishasaLiberatingForce一文中指出：語法可被視為一種交際資源。語言使用者采掘語法資源以表達其觀念和態(tài)度，語言使用者對某種語法結(jié)構(gòu)的使用屬于個人選擇。如：Carrdrewadistinctionbetweentwoquitedifferentandwarringphilosophicaltraditionswhichdominatededucationresearch.Pring,however,arguesthatsuchdichotomiesbetweenquantitativeandqualitativeresearchareafalsedualism.過去時的使用意味著Carr的觀點已不再具有廣泛性，甚至過時；與之相對的現(xiàn)在時的使用表明Pring的主張是當下領(lǐng)域的主流派，也是作者的觀點。(6)總的原則：1）實用性2)規(guī)范性與發(fā)展性3)理論性與應(yīng)用性4）專題性（解決陌生或疑難）我們認為，正確的做法是應(yīng)該把對語法規(guī)則的講解和培養(yǎng)學生的交際能力有機地結(jié)合起來，不能只停留在對語法規(guī)則的講解上或只進行語言輸入，不講規(guī)則。Lecture2SentenceStructure

I.SubjectandpredicateGenerally,afull-fledgedsentence/clausefallsintotwoparts:thesubjectandthepredicate.1.Basicclausetypes:SVC,SV,SVA,SVO,SVOA,SVOC,SVoO.a.Thecarismine./Sheisingoodcondition./Theseflowerssmellfragrant.b.Ironrusts./Theguestshavearrived./Thepricesaregoingdown.c.Thetrainleavesatsix./HelivesinChongqing.d.HespeaksGermanquitewell.e.Icouldanswerthatquestion.f.Wemadehimourspokesman./Theyelectedhimpresident./Thedirectorsappointedhimsalesmanager.g.Marylentmeabook./Imademyselfacupoftea.II.Typesofsentences1.TheperiodicsentencesInmanyways,thehistoryofEnglishwordsisthehistoryofourcivilization.Accordingtonewspaperreports,afterwinningtheOlympicgoldmedalforfigureskating,shewasofferedaprofessionalcontract.2.Simple,Compound,ComplexandCompound-ComplexSentences1)Thesimplesentence---single-verbcombinationThemotherisdressingherbaby.Thepartyendedearly.Helosthiswalletlastweek.Thecitywasdestroyedbytheearthquake.RalphandLindaaresittingunderthetree.Heisreadingandwritingatthesametime.Mary,Luwella,andMikelubricatedmycar,replacedtheoilfilter,andcleanedthesparkplugs.2)Thecompoundsentence-----MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet)Theheavyrainstartedsuddenly,sowestoppedplantingourtrees.Frankwantedtogoswimming,butMarydecidedtogoshopping.JaneworksintheFamilyPlanningClinicandherhusbandSmithdoesresearchworkforthesameunit.3)Thecomplexsentence---MADEupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Oneideaistoputmoreemphasisononethanonanother.BecauseIforgotthetime,Imissedtheplay.WhileSuzanwaseatingthefish,shebegantofeelsick.Icheckedmypaperagainbefore…WhenCindylosthertemper,shealsolosthermanner.Although…4)Thecompound-complexsentence---MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentencesandone(ormore)dependentstatements.Inthefollowingexamples,asolidlineisunderthedependentstatement.Whenthepowerlinesnapped,Jackwaslisteningtothestereo,andLindawasreadinginbed.AfterIreturnedtoschoolfollowingalongillness,themathteachermademedrophercourse.Pre-studyExercise:Itseemsthecattleonthesidesofthedykes(was,were)theonlylivingcreaturesinthesedesolatesurroundings.Themilitia(was,were)calledouttoguardtheborderland.Theaudience(is,are)listeningtoaBeethovensymphony.TheBoardofDirectors(is,are)shaking(its,their)headsattheChairman’sspeech.Thepoultry(was,were)imported.Alotofmachinery(was,were)madebythemselves.Thepoultry(is,were)keptinthebackyard.Thepublic(was,were)convincedofhisinnocence.Lecture3Subject-verbConcordI.Guidingprinciples:Therearethreeprinciplesguidingsubject-verbconcord,whichareprinciplesofgrammaticalconcord,notionalconcordandproximity.1.Grammaticalconcord:It,asamajorprinciple,referstotherulethattheverbmustmatchitssubjectinnumber,eg:Bothboyshavetheirownmerits./Everygirlcomesontime./Mucheffortiswasted.2.Notionalconcord:Itreferstotherulethattheverbcansometimesagreewiththesubjectaccordingtothenotionofnumberratherthantotheactualpresenceofthegrammaticalmarkerforthatnotion,eg:Thegovernmenthaveaskedthecountrytodecidebyavote./Fifteenmilesseemslikealongwalktome.3.Proximity:Itdenotesagreementoftheverbwithaclose-lyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject,eg:Eithermybrothersormyfatheriscoming./Nooneexcepthisownsupportersagreewithhim./NeitherJulianorIamgoing.4.Troublemakers4.1.1Diseaseandgamenamesendingin–s:Namesofdiseasesendingin–saremostlytreatedassingular,butthereareafewsuchnamessuchasmeasles,arthritis,mumps,bronchitis,diabetesandrickets

thatcanbeusedeitherassingular(moreoften)orasplural.Gamenamesendingin–saregenerallyusedassingularwiththeexceptionofcardswhichareusuallytreatedasplural.4.1.2Subjectnamesendingin–ics:Namesofsubjectsendingin–icsaregenerallysingularnouns,butsomeofwhicharetreatedaspluralwhenusedinothersensesthansubjectnames,eg:Acousticsisthescienceofsound.←→Theacousticsinthenewconcerthallarefaultless./Theeconomicsisarequiredcourseforallthestudents.←→Theeconomicsoftheprojectarestillbeingconsidered.4.1.3Geographicalnamesendingin–s:Geographicalnamessuchasthenamesofcountries,mountainranges,straitsandfallsaregenerallyusedasaplural,exceptforafewtreatedassingularwhenusedascountrynames,eg:TheHimalayashaveamagnificentvarietyofplantandanimallife./TheTaiwanStraightsarepeaceful,whichisablessingforthepeopleacrossthethem./InearlyJanuary1976,theNetherlandswashitbyitsworststormsince19Othernounsendingin–s:Namesforthingsmadeoftwopartssuchasscissors,pincers鉗子,shorts,etcareusuallyusedasplural.Butwhentheyareprecededbysuchunitnounsasapairofandtwopairsof,thenumberformofthefollowingverbisgenerallydeterminedbythenumbermarkeroftheunitnoun.Nounsusuallytakingpluralendingssuchasarchives,arms,clothesandfireworksaregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionofwhereabouts,dramatics,etcwhichmaybetreatedeitheraspluralorassingular.Nounsendingin–ingssuchasclippings,diggings,etc,aregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionoftidingswhichcanbeusedbothways.Therearealsonounssuchasbarracks,headquartersandmeanswhosesingularandpluralnumbersharethesameform.Thesenounsaretreatedaspluralwhenusedinthepluralsense,orviceversa.4.2Collectivenounsassubject4.2.1Collectivenounsusedasplurallikepeople,police,cattle,militia,poultry,vermin,etc.Domesticcattleprovideuswithmilk,beefandhides.4.2.2Collectivenounsusuallyusedassingularlikemachinery,equipment,furniture,merchandise,etc.4.2.3Collectivenounsusedeitheraspluralorassingularlikeaudience,class,family,etc.Theanti-crimecommitteeistomakeareporttomorrow.←→Thecommitteearedividedinopinionaboutthisproblem.4.2.4Inspecialslikeacommitteeof/aboardof/apanelof,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform,eg:Theboardofdirectorsisresponsibleforthemanagementofthecompany.

主謂不一致現(xiàn)象透視I.正式用法：1.深層同一：Hiswarmestadmirerandseverestcriticwashiswife.→←Hiswifewashiswarmestadmirerandseverestcritic.//Hisagedservantandthesubsequenteditorofhiscollectedpaperswas/werewithhimathisdeath-bed.2.不同成分的混合體：Whiskyandsodaismyfavouritedrink.→←Myfavouritedrinkiswhiskyandsoda.3.復數(shù)概念：Whatmakeseachdivisiondifferentareafewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership.→←Afewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership,arewhatmakeseachdivisiondifferent./Thegovernmenthavebrokentheirpromises./Thisgroupplaceconsiderableemphasisonthecontextualnatureoflearning,anddonotdrawgeneralizationsfromthephenomenaobservedtothepopulationatlarge.4.整體概念：Fivedollarsistoomuchtopayforabookinthatcondition./Threemonthspassesinnotimeatallonsuchatour./Seniorcitizensmeans,incommonparlance,peopleoversixty./Acarandabicycleisabsolutelynecessary.5.1+1=1：Everysegmentofourpopulationandeveryindividualhasarighttoexpectfromhisgovernmentafairdeal---HarryTruman6.假朋友：Inalmosteverygroup,politicsisacontroversialsubject.→←Radicalpolitics(policies)wereoffensivetotheFederalists./Theauthor’spoliticshavealsobeenresponsibleforhiscurrentexile./TheCedars(thecouple)hasahugegarden.7.Hisfamily,whoaregreatmusicians,haveallreceivedtheireducationinParis.→←Hisfamily,whichisaverydistinguishedone,cantraceitshistorybacktotheMiddleAges.II.非正式用法：1.復數(shù)概念：Neitherradionortelevisionprovideadequatenewscoverage./JohnandMarywillhavetowalk,neitherofthemhaveboughttheircars./Neitherhenorhiswifehavethefaintestideaofwhatliesbeyondit./Everyone,includingDr.HattahimselfandPravdaandtheNewYorkTimes,agreeonourpoint.2.虛位主語（常由here,there,where等引導）：Here’sJohnandMary./There’ssomechildrenatthedoor./Offtobed,there’sgoodchildren.3.偽就近原則：Thoseboys---oneorotherofthemhaveleftthedooropen./AnoutstandingfeatureofallDepartmentsaremanwell-supportedpostgraduatecourses.4.隨便文體：There’stwopatientsinthewaitingroom.Lecture5NounsandNounPhrasesI.Classificationofnounsandfunctionofnounphrases1.Classification---simple,compoundandderivativenouns;Properandcommonnouns;Countandnoncountnouns2.Functionofnounphrases---subject,subjectcomplement,object,objectcomplement,appositive,prepositionalcomplementation,adverbial(Ireturnedlastnight.),conjunction(Aphotoistakeneachtimethisbuttonispushed.)3.NumberformsofnounsLecture6DeterminersDeterminersincludearticles,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns,demonstrativedeterminers,relativedeterminers,interrogativedeterminers,indefinitedeterminers,cardinalandordinalnumerals,fractionalandmultiplicativenumerals,andotherquantifiers.2.1Collocationsbetweendeterminersandnouns2.1.1Determinerswithallthreeclasses(singularcountnouns,pluralcountnounsandnon-countnouns)ofnouns:possessive,genitive,definitearticlesaswellassome,any,no,theother,andwhose.2.1.2Determinerswithsingularcountnounsonly—a(n),one,another,each,every,either,neither,manya,sucha2.1.3Determinerssuchascanonlycollocatewithpluralcountnounsonly---both,two,three,etc,anothertwo/three,many,(a)few,several,these,those,a(great)numberof2.1.4Determinerswithnon-countnounsonly---alittle,abit,agreatamountof,agreatdealof,much,less,least2.1.5Determinerswithsingularandpluralcountnounsonly:thefirst,thesecond,thelast,thenext2.1.6Determinerswithsingularandnon-countnounsonly:this,that2.1.7Determinerswithpluralandnoncountnounsonly:alotof,plentyof,enough,most,such,other2.2Collocationsbetweendeterminers2.2.1Centraldeterminers,predeterminersandpostdeterminersArticles,demonstrativedeterminers,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns;some,any,no,every,each,either,neither,enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose,etc.Theyaremutuallyexclusive.All,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,etc;one-third,two-fifths,etc.what,such.Theyarealsomutuallyexclusive.

Many,much,few,little,fewer,less,more(andtheirsuperlativeform),several,plentyof,alotof,agreat/large/goodnumberof,agreat/gooddealof,alarge/smallamountof;such.2.2.2Wordorderofthreesubclassesofdeterminers:predeterminer+centraldeterminer+postdeterminer:allthefourstudents/alltheselastfewdays/bothhistwosisters/bothhisparents/hislastfewwords/threeothergirls

Multiplechoice:determiners1.Isaw___boysatthecinema.a.thebothb.halfac.boththed.theseveral2.___candidatesaregirls.

a.Halftheb.Thehalfc.Theirhalfd.Halfa3.Hewasonleave___days.a.thefewlastb.fewanotherc.fewotherd.thelastfew4.Pleaseserveme___soup.a.moresomeb.thelessc.morethed.somemore5.___factorsshouldbeconsidered.a.Theseallb.Suchallc.Allsuchd.Somethese6.Theyarenotlikelytoagreeto___propositions.a.otheranyb.otherallc.allotherd.otherthese7.Hehasbeenstayingathome___days.a.thesealllastfewb.theselastfewallc.alltheselastfewd.theselastallfewLecture6Determiners(II)--Articles

Lecture7VerbsandVerbPhrasesIClassificationofverbs1.Mainverbsandauxiliaries(primary,modalandsemi-auxiliaries)2.Transitive,intransitiveandlinkingverbs3.Dynamicandstativeverbs(be,have,applyto,belongto,differfrom,cost,weigh,measure,fit,hold,lack,resemble;assume,believe,consider,detest,fear,hate,hope,imagine,know,like,love,mean,mind,notice,prefer,regret,remember,suppose,think,understand,want,wish)4.Single-wordverbsandphrasalverbsPhrasalverbsfallintothreecategories：Verb+preposition;Verb+adverbparticle(breakout);Verb+adverbparticle+preposition(comedownwith)5.Finiteverbsandnon-finiteverbs6.RegularandirregularverbsII.Asurveyoftense,aspect,voiceandmood1.Tenseandaspect:Tenseisagrammaticalformassociatedwithverbsthattellsoftime;thatistosay,tenseandtimeareatoncerelatedanddifferent.Timeisauniversalconceptwiththreedivisions:past,presentandfuturetime.Aspectasagrammaticaltermindicateswhetheranactionorstateatagiventimeisviewedascompleteorincomplete.Englishverbshavetwoaspects:theprogressiveandtheperfectiveaspects.漢語語法學者對時態(tài)和時間的表述時間是人類共有的概念，分為過去、現(xiàn)在和將來三段。“共有”意指超出語言范疇(extra-linguistic)，不依賴任何語言而存在。因此，時間屬于人類的思維范疇，而時態(tài)才屬于語法范疇。//（時態(tài)是語法范疇，不同的語言有不同的時態(tài)系統(tǒng)；時間是獨立于語言的概念，具有普遍性。2.Activevoiceandpassivevoice3.Indicativemood,imperativemoodandsubjunctivemoodIII.Usesoftenseandaspect1.Simplepresent:timelesspresent;habitualpresent;futurepresent(hope,bet,seetoit,makesure,ifclause);2.Simplepast:pasteventandpasthabit;attitudinalandhypotheticalpast3.Presentprogressive:actioninprogress;futurehappening;othermeanings4.Pastprogressive:actioninprogressinthepasttime(includingpasthabitualactionorfuturityinthepast);othermeanings5.Presentperfective6.Pastperfective(includingsentenceswithwhen-/before-/after-until-/since-clauses)Perfectiveaspectisoftenaccompaniedbyasince-phraseorasince-clausetodenoteacontinuousstateoractivityfromapointinthepasttimeuntilnow.Theverbiscommonlythesimplepastofadynamicverbdenotingnon-continuousactivity.Ifthemainverbinthesuperordinateclauseisintheformof“Itbe+complement(denotingatimespan)+since-clause”,theverbbeinthemainclausemayoccurinthesimplepresentinplaceofthepresentperfective,e