大二上復(fù)習(xí)-西方廣告選講unit4a for students

西方廣告評析彭策制作1Unit4ConsumerresearchfromConsumerperspectiveELM（ElaborationLikelihoodModel）ElaborationLikelihoodModelinConsumerResearch西方廣告評析彭策制作2CacioppoandPetty(1980)notedthatduetolimitedcognitiveresources,theamountofelaboration(orthoughtfulattention)thatpeoplearewillingand/orabletoinvestindecision-makingvarieswiththeindividualandthesituation.Whenmakingadecision,thereisoftennotenoughtimeormentalcapacitytofullyanalyzeimportantaspectsofpersuasivearguments.Intheseinstances,peopletendtorelyonothercuestomakedecisions(Cafferata&Tybout,1989).ThisnotionoflimitedcognitiveresourcesisessentialtotheELMandhassincebeenelaboratedtoformwhatiscalledthe“ElaborationContinuum”.Thiscontinuumdescribeshowtheamountofthought(elaboration)giventoapersuasivemessagevaries.Sometimespeopleputinagreatdealofthought(highelaboration)andsometimesonlyverylittlethought(lowelaboration).西方廣告評析彭策制作3西方廣告評析彭策制作4CentralrouteCentralrouteprocessesarethosethatrequireagreatdealofthought,andthereforearelikelytopredominateunderconditionsthatpromotehighelaboration.Centralrouteprocessesinvolvecarefulscrutinyofapersuasivecommunication(e.g.,aspeech,anadvertisement,etc.)todeterminethemeritsofthearguments.Undertheseconditions,aperson'suniquecognitiveresponsestothemessagedeterminethepersuasivee(i.e.,thedirectionandmagnitudeofattitudechange).So,iffavorablethoughtsarearesultoftheelaborationprocess,themessagewillmostlikelybeaccepted(i.e.,anattitudecongruentwiththemessage'spositionwillemerge),andifunfavorablethoughtsaregeneratedwhileconsideringthemeritsofpresentedarguments,themessagewillmostlikelyberejected.Inorderforthemessagetobecentrallyprocessed,apersonmusthavetheabilityandmotivationtodoso.西方廣告評析彭策制作6TheCentralRoutetoPersuasionismarkedbyhighelaboration(Shavitt&Brock,1994).Elaborationisdefinedasthefactorthatrelatesinformationinapersuasivemessagetoknowledgealreadypossessedinordertoarriveatnewideasthatwerenotalreadypresentintheadvertisementorstoredinpreviousknowledge(Cafferata&Tybout,1989).Theultimategoalofelaborationistojudgewhetherthepositiontakeninthepersuasivemessagehasanyrealmerit.Thethoughtsandresponsesthatapersonhasinresponsetoamessagearecalledcognitiveresponses.Ingeneratingcognitiveresponses,apersonisabletoanalyzethemeritofthepositiontaken(Shavitt&Brock,1994).

西方廣告評析彭策制作8Inordertoevaluateamessage,apersonmustbemotivatedandable.Iftheyhaveboththemotivationandtheability,apersoncancarefullyappraisethemessage’smerit.Itisimportanttoknowthatappraisalvariesfrompersontopersonandsituationtosituation(Cafferata&Tybout,1989).西方廣告評析彭策制作9PeripheralroutePeripheralrouteprocesses,ontheotherhand,donotinvolveelaborationofthemessagethroughextensivecognitiveprocessingofthemeritsoftheactualargumentpresented.Theseprocessesoftenrelyonenvironmentalcharacteristicsofthemessage,liketheperceivedcredibilityofthesource,qualityofthewayinwhichitispresented,theattractivenessofthesource,orthecatchysloganthatcontainsthemessage西方廣告評析彭策制作10PeripheralRoutetoPersuasionThePeripheralRoutetoPersuasionisdefinedbytherelianceonsimplecuesandenvironmentalcharacteristicsofthemessagetomakedecisionsandjudgments(Cafferata&Tybout,1989).Forexample,intheperipheralroutepeoplerelyoncuessuchassourceattractiveness,perceivedcredibilityofthesource,andmessagelength(Petty,2001).Here,ifeithermotivationorabilityisnotavailabletoaperson,thereisaheavyrelianceonperipheralcuesasopposedtoamessage’sfactualinformation,whichneedstobecarefullyanalyzed(Shavitt&Brock).

西方廣告評析彭策制作12Cialdini(1981)identifiedsixtypesofperipheralcues:reciprocation,liking,socialproofing,consistency,authorityandscarcity.Reciprocationdescribesafeelingofobligationtobelieveamessagebasedonapreviousexperience.Likingreferstotheattractivenessorviewthatthemessagesourceislikeable.Socialproofingisverysimilartopeerpressure.

Consistencydescribeswhenonereliesonthoughtsandfeelingstheyhadinthepast.Authorityreferstowhenasourceisviewedasanexpertorauthorityfiguredthatshouldbetrustedandobeyed.And,scarcityiswhenthemessageisperceivedasonlybeingpresentforashorttimeandmustbeacceptedquickly.(Cialdiniet.al,1981)西方廣告評析彭策制作14ChoiceofrouteThetwofactorsthatmostinfluencewhichrouteanindividualwilltakeinapersuasivesituationaremotivation(strongdesiretoprocessthemessage;e.g.,Petty&Cacioppo,1979)andability(actuallybeingcapableofcriticalevaluation;e.g.,Petty,Wells,&Brock,1976).

Whichrouteistakenisdeterminedbytheextentofelaboration.Bothmotivationalandabilityfactorsdetermineelaboration.Motivationalfactorsinclude(amongothers)thepersonalrelevanceofthemessagetopic,accountability,andaperson's"needforcognition"(theirinnatedesiretoenjoythinking).Abilityfactorsincludetheavailabilityofcognitiveresources(e.g.,thepresenceorabsenceoftimepressuresordistractions)orrelevantknowledgeneededtocarefullyscrutinizethearguments.Thesubject'sgeneraleducationlevel,aswellastheireducationandexperiencewiththetopicathandgreatlyaffecttheirabilitytobepersuaded.Underconditionsofmoderateelaboration,amixtureofcentralandperipheralrouteprocesseswillguideinformationprocessing.西方廣告評析彭策制作17PuttingtheCentralRouteandPeripheralRouteTogether

Decidingwhichrouteisusedwhenformingorchanginganattitudebasedonapersuasivemessagecanbethoughtofasaseriesofsteps(Shavitt&Brock,1994).First,apersoncomesintocontactwithapersuasivemessage.Next,themotivationoftheindividualmustbeassessed.Thisismostinfluencedbytwofactors–intentionandexertion(effort).Ifthepersonislackingmotivation,theperipheralrouteistaken.Ifmotivationexists,thenthenextquestionisability.Abilityisinfluencedmostbyfactorssuchasgender,IQ,andopportunity.Again,ifthepersonisnotable,peripheralcuesareused(Shavitt&Brock,1994).Then,ifapersonismotivatedandabletothoughtfullyconsiderapersuasivemessage,thenextstepwouldbetolookatthenatureofthecognitiveprocess.西方廣告評析彭策制作19Ifthepersonfeelsneutralaboutthemessage,theperipheralcuesareused(Shavitt&Brock,1994).However,ifthepersonfeelssomethingotherthanneutralaboutthemessage–eitherafavorableorunfavorableoutlook–thecentralroutetopersuasioniscomplete.Thisismarkedbyeitherapositiveattitudechange,intheeventofafavorableresponsetoamessage,oranegativeattitudechangeintheeventofanunfavorableresponsetoamessage.西方廣告評析彭策制作20Tosummarize,themainfactorsthatinfluencewhichrouteistakenismotivationandability.Withouteitherofthesetwovariablestheperipheralroutemustbeused,andthustheindividualmustrelyonsimplecuestomakeadecisionabouttheirattitudetowardsthemessage.西方廣告評析彭策制作21ImplicationsTherearetwokeyimplicationsoftheElaborationLikelihoodModel.Thefirstisthatanyonevariablecanproducepersuasionbydifferentprocessesindifferentsituations(Petty,2001).Thisgoesbacktothenotionthatpersuasiondiffersfromindividualtoindividualandfromsituationtosituation(Hamilton,2004).Thenextimportationideaisthatnotallattitudechangesofthesamemagnitudeareequal.Thatis,thoughtfulattitudechanges(viacentralroute)aremoreconsequentialthannon-thoughtfulchangesviatheperipheralroute(Petty,2001).西方廣告評析彭策制作22

TheElaboration

LikelihoodModel西方廣告評析彭策制作23CriticismsoftheELMTheElaborationLikelihoodModelisoneofthetwodualprocessingmodelsofpersuasion.TheothermajormodeliscalledtheHeuristic-SystematicModel,whichsharesmuchincommonwiththeELM.Together,thesearethetwomaintheoriesofprocessingthatsocialpsychologistslookattodescribehowattitudesareformedandchangedinresponsetoapersuasivemessage(Petty,2001).西方廣告評析彭策制作24TheHeuristic-SystematicModelemphasizesthatpeopleusementalshortcuts(heuristics)indecision-making.Insteadoflookingatthecentralrouteofprocessingandtheperipheralrouteofprocessing,inthistheorythoughtfulandattentivedecision-makingiscalledsystematicprocessingandautomaticprocessingiscalledheuristicprocessing(Hamilton,2004).Whiletherearetwodifferenttheories,thefactthattheyaresosimilarinnaturedemonstratesthattheELMiswidelybelievedandfewsocialpsychologistscriticizeitsmerit.TheexperimentsthatsupporttheELMhavebeenreplicatedagainandagainindifferentsituationsandwithvariousvariables.Therefore,theElaborationModelofpersuasiveisheldastheleadingtheorytodescribetheprocessingofpersuasivemessages(Petty,2001).西方廣告評析彭策制作26ConclusionsoftheElaborationLikelihoodModelInadditiontothesefactors,theELMalsomakesseveraluniqueproposals.Itissuggestedthatattitudesformedunderhighelaboration,thecentralroute,arestrongerthanthoseformedunderlowelaboration.Thismeansthatthislevelofpersuasionisstableovertimeandislesssusceptibletodecayoranytypeofcounter-persuasion.Attitudesformedunderlowelaboration,theperipheralroute,aremorelikelytocauseashorttermattitudechange.VariablesinELMroutescanservemultiplerolesinapersuasivesettingdependingonothercontextualfactors(examplesbelow).Underhighelaboration,agivenvariable(e.g.,sourceexpertise)caneitherserveasanargument("IfEinsteinagreeswiththetheoryofrelativity,thenthisisastrongreasonformetoaswell")orasabiasingfactor("ifanexpertagreeswiththispositionitisprobablygood,soletmeseewhatelseagreeswiththisconclusion"(attheexpenseofinformationthatdisagreeswithit)).西方廣告評析彭策制作28Underconditionsoflowelaboration,agivenvariablecanactasaperipheralcue(e.g.,throughtheuseofan"expertsarealwaysright"heuristic–notethatwhilethisissimilartothecasepresentedabove,thisisasimpleshortcut,anddoesnotrequirethecarefulthoughtasintheEinsteinexampleabove).

Underconditionsofmoderateelaboration,agivenvariablecanservetodirecttheextentofinformationprocessing("Well,ifanexpertagreeswiththisposition,Ishouldreallylistentowhat(s)hehastosay").Interestingly,whenavariableaffectselaboration,thiscanincreaseordecreasepersuasion,dependingonthestrengthoftheargumentspresented.Iftheargumentsarestrong,enhancingelaborationwillenhancepersuasion.Iftheargumentsareweak,however,morethoughtwillunderminepersuasion.西方廣告評析彭策制作30MorerecentadaptationsoftheELM(e.g.)haveaddedanadditionalrolethatvariablescanserve.Theycanaffecttheextenttowhichapersonhasconfidencein,andthustrusts,theirownthoughtsinresponsetoamessage(self-validationrole).Keepingwithoursourceexpertiseexample,apersonmayfeelthat"ifanexpertpresentedthisinformation,itisprobablycorrect,andthusIcantrustthatmyreactionstoitareinformativewithrespecttomyattitude".Notethatthisrole,becauseofitsmetacognitivenature,onlyoccursunderconditionsthatpromotehighelaboration.西方廣告評析彭策制作31ElaborationLikelihoodModelinConsumerResearchSTRUCTURE：I.IntroductionII.ElaborationLikelihoodModelIII.ProcessingAntecedentsIV.ProcessV.ProcessingCuesVI.Conclusion西方廣告評析彭策制作32I.Introductionconsumers’attitudinalresponsestoadvertisingthestudyofbrandattitudeandmemoryformationprocessesintegrativemodelsofinformationprocessingandpersuasionELM西方廣告評析彭策制作33ThepurposeofthispaperistoreviewtheapplicationofELMtoconsumerresearch.(1)studiesconductedinadvertisingcontexts,(2)effectsonbrandevaluationsratherthanonchoiceorbehavior,(3)specificationofprocessingmechanisms,and(4)findingsthatnotonlyconfirmthemodelbutalsoextenditorseemtocontradictit.西方廣告評析彭策制作34anoverviewofELMitsapplicationinthreedomains:antecedents,processes,andprocessingcues.Abriefconclusion西方廣告評析彭策制作35II.ElaborationLikelihoodModel“centralroute”-cognitiveactivityObjectiveprocessingBiasedprocessing（possessesastrongprioropinion）“peripheralroute”-Non-cognitiveprocessesNon-contentelements-peripheralcues

messagearguments,sourcecharacteristics(likability,expertise,attractiveness),music,affectivereactions西方廣告評析彭策制作36Antecedents:individualfactorstheindividual’smotivation

Perceivedpersonalrelevance,needforcognition,increasednumberofmessagesources,andpersonalresponsibility西方廣告評析彭策制作37abilitylowlevelsofexternaldistraction,acontrollablemessagepace,messagerepetition,andhighmessagecomprehensibility.situationalfactors西方廣告評析彭策制作38III.ProcessingAntecedents1.MessageRepetition2.PriorKnowledge3.Self-Referencing4.Arousal5.MediaType6.CombiningVariables西方廣告評析彭策制作391.MessageRepetitionmoreopportunitiesforargumentscrutiny,theargumentsarestrongandtedium(annoyance)isnotinducedextremelyeasytoprocess.notthesameforallelementsofattitude.Wearout(occurforaffectiveevaluation,withoutoccurringforthecognitivecomponentsofattitudes)increaseattitudeaccessibility,attitudeconfidence,andattitude-behavior-consistencyPartialad

repetition-improvebrandmemoryandpersuasionEnhancingtheperceptionoffamiliarity西方廣告評析彭策制作402.PriorKnowledgeissue-relevantinformation(Knowledge(themodeofinformationpresentation(theattractioneffect:numerically,verbally)),simplecuesissueinvolvement-thesearcheffortExperts-moredetailedprocessing-evaluativemanner

(attributeinformation)Novices-literally(benefitinformation)西方廣告評析彭策制作413.Self-Referencingrelatetheinformationtothemselvesandtotheirownexperience(littleinformation-past)(detailedinformation-future)recipients’motivation4.Arousal(亢奮狀態(tài))workingmemorycapacity(-)reducingprocessingcapacity,increasestheinfluenceofperipheralcuesanddecreasestheinfluenceofcentralargumentsleastdemandingbutmostdiagnostic西方廣告評析彭策制作425.MediaTypePrintads-arelativelydemandingcognitivetaskbroadcastadvertising-inmultiplesensorymodeRadio-highlyinvolvedconsumers-self-relatedelaborationTV-lessinvolvedconsumers-morelearningofbrandsandadpoints.theWeb-arational,cognitivemedium西方廣告評析彭策制作436.CombiningVariablesrhetoricalquestionsMessagerepetitionHerzberg'stwo-factortheoryHygieneFactors

MotivationFactors

西方廣告評析彭策制作44IV.Process1.ElaborationTwotypesofissue-relevantthinkingitem-specificprocessing（uniquefeatures）relationalprocessing（sharedthemes）“piecemeal（part）processing”（moreproduct-relatedthoughts）（morefavorableproductevaluationwhenadclaimsaremoderatelyincongruent）“category-basedprocessing”西方廣告評析彭策制作452.InteractionbetweenCentralandPeripheralProcessingTradeoffArgumentscrutiny+centralcues（systematic）（importantdeterminants）peripheral(orheuristic)cues（expertisecue）西方廣告評析彭策制作46V.ProcessingCues

1.CentralandPeripheralCuesA.ContentofAdClaimsthedistinction（fact-basedmessages，feeling-basedclaims）Factualmessages(or“informationalads”)：logical,objectivelyverifiabledescriptions（morebelievable，cognition）（bettermemoryretrievalcues）feeling-basedclaims(or“transformationalads”)：subjective,emotional,（oftenassociatedwithdrama）（empathicidentification（limitedcognitiveresources）西方廣告評析彭策制作47B.ComparativeAdvertisingClaimsexternalreferencepoints（thebenchmarks）thepersuasioneffectasconsumers’involvementC.PicturesinPrintAdsRelevantpictures(picturesthatconveyproduct-relevantinformation)-issue-relevantelaboration（greaterimpact）Irrelevantpictures（imageryaffectiveresponses）low-involvedconsumers（all：heuristicorperipheral）high-involvedviewers（relevantpicturesmay-product-irrelevantthoughts-undermine（ruin）thepersuasioneffect）西方廣告評析彭策制作48D.CameraAnglelowcameraangle-morepositively（whenmotivationnothigh）distantperspective(preferred)(greatereffectforsolitaryviewersthanforsocialviewers).西方廣告評析彭策制作492.MultipleRolesofPositiveAffectpositiveaffectreducesmessageprocessingMechanismsCognitivecapacity(whentimelimited)motivation西方廣告評析彭策制作503.MultipleRolesofSourceExpertiseperipheralroute(simpleacceptanceorrejectioncues)(peripheralcues)greaterinfluenceonattitudes(rapidpace)西方廣告評析彭策制作514.ProcessingGoalsPrioribrandevaluationgoaladevaluationgoal5.AttitudeTowardtheAdAad-peripheralcueinbrandattitudeformation.Cognitiveevaluations(centralcues)affectivereactions(peripheral

cues)西方廣告評析彭策制作52VI.Conclusion1.CurrentStatusELMdividingthepersuasionprocessesintocentralandperipheralroutesmotivationandabilityasthedeterminantsofpersuasionrouteslow-involvementpersuasion西方廣告評析彭策制作532.FutureResearchDirectionsProcessingantecedentsthepotentialrolesofadexecutioncuestheprocessingsituationCuediagnosticityTemporalpersistence,resistance西方廣告評析彭策制作54Howdoonlinereviewsaffectpurchasingintention?INTRODUCTIONLiteraturereviewELMInvolvementMETHODRESULTSDISCUSSION西方廣告評析彭策制作55Direct-to-ConsumerAdvertisingandits

Utility

inHealthCareDecisionMaking:AConsumer

PerspectiveSTRUCTUREIntroductionLiteratureReviewResearchQuestionsMethodResultsConclusionsandImplicationsLimitationsandFutureResearchReferences西方廣告評析彭策制作57Introduction1.Role;targets;growth;marketingstrategies;Inception(beginning);pharmaceutical(制藥的);Presence;expenditures;impact;2.‘‘educational’’value;therapeutic(治療的)Dissemination(散播);posit(假定);incidence(發(fā)生頻率);3.Objective;perceive;thekeydrivers;influence;retrospectivebehaviorLiteratureReview1.Paternalistic(paternal,father)role;delegate(授權(quán));Implicit(暗含的)assumptions;revolves;Consent(agreement);thesoledecisionmaker;

potentialcontribution;2.shift;equalinvolvement;therapeuticpreferences;collaborative(集體的)decision；compliance(順從);adherence(堅(jiān)持);regimen(control);3.thelevelofparticipation;sociodemographiccharacteristics;empiricalresearch;4.actualutilization;evidence;awareness;factualknowledge;engender(giveriseto);Consumeradvocacygroups;ResearchQuestionsResearchQuestion1:HowdoConsumersPerceive

DTCAds?(+/-?)1.demographiccharacteristics;healthstatus;existence;2.theeffect;features;opinions;ResearchQuestion2:WhatConsumerandAdVariables

DetermineConsumerOpinionsoftheUtilityofDTCAforHealthCareDecisionMaking1.consumers’attitudes;medication-relatedbehaviors;operationalize;actualuse;ResearchQuestion3:DoConsumers’OpinionsoftheUtilityofDTCAInfluenceTheirUseofAdInformationinHealthCareDecisionMaking?MethodDataSampleStudyMeasuresAnalysisDatanationalconsumersurvey;randomdigitdialing;Representativeness;Themarginoferror;SampleTheeligibility(合格)criterion;Listwisedeletion;Instatistics,listwisedeletionisamethodforhandlingmissingdata.Inthismethod,anentirerecordisexcludedfromanalysisifanysinglevalueismissing.Rebasing;StudyMeasuresOpinionsRegardingtheDecision-MakingUtilityofDTCAdsConsumers’DemographicsandHealthCharacteristicsLevelofAdExposureandAdFeaturesUtilizationofDTCAdsinHealthCareDecisionMakingOpinionsRegardingtheDecision-MakingUtilityofDTCAdsattitudestowardadvertisingofprescriptionmedicines.threeitemsmeasuringconsumers’opinionsItem1–allowpeopletobemoreinvolvedItem2–helppeoplemaketheirowndecisionsItem3–educatepeopleabouttherisksandbenefitsExploratoryfactoranalysis(EFA);Consumers’DemographicsandHealthCharacteristics

demographiccharacteristics:Age:continuumGender:dichotomousmeasureRace:dichotomousmeasureandlevelofeducation:intervalshealthcharacteristicstheamountofdrugutilization:Continuousthenumberofillnesses:ContinuousLevelofAdExposureandAdFeaturesLevelofAdExposure:thecumulativenumber:ContinuousAdfeatures:theirpastexperiencePerceptionofqualityofriskinformation:Continuousmeanscore:qualityandquantity,seriousandnonseriousdrugrisk,televisionandmagazinePerceptionofqualityofbenefitinformation:Continuousmeanscore:theadequacyofbenefitInformation,televisionandmagazinePerceptionofadclarity:ContinuousUtilizationofDTCAdsinHealthCareDecisionMakingUtilizationofDTC:Druginquirybehavior:DichotomousMedicalconditioninquiry:DichotomousDrugrequestbehavior:DichotomousOpinionsofdecision-makingutility:ContinuousAnalysis

SAS/SPSS;Descriptivestatistics;thestandardizedsampleweights;weightedmultipleregressionanalysis(加權(quán)多元回歸分析

);thestatisticallysignificantfactors;Thepredictorvariables;Demographicscharacteristics,healthcharacteristics,levelofadexposure,andperceptionsofadfeaturesMulticollinearity(多重共線性);candidatepredictors;collinearitydiagnostics;varianceinflationfactor(VIF);tolerancevalues;conditionindices;thegoodness-of-fit;R-squaremeasures:Statisticalmeasureofhowwellaregressionlineapproximatesrealdatapoints;anr-squaredof1.0(100%)indicatesaperfectfit.Thestandardizedbetacoefficients:Instatistics,standardizedcoefficientsorbetacoefficientsaretheestimatesresultingfromananalysiscarriedoutonvariablesthathavebeenstandardizedsothattheirvariancesare1.Standardizationofthecoefficientisusuallydonetoanswerthequestionofwhichoftheindependentvariableshaveagreatereffectonthedependentvariableinamultipleregressionanalysis,whenthevariablesaremeasuredindifferentunitsofmeasurement.WeightedlogisticregressionanalysesThelogitfunctiongoesfromminusinfinitytoplusinfinity.Thelogitfunctionhasthenicepropertythatlogit(p)=-logit(1-p)anditsinverseisdefinedforvaluesfromminusinfinitytoplusinfinity,anditonlytakesonvaluesbetween0and1.

whenwedoweightedlogisticregressionwewillweighttheimportanceofourobservationssothatdifferentobservationshavedifferentweightsassociatedtothem.CovariatesCovariatesareuncontrolledvariablesthatinfluencetheresponsebutdonotinteractwithanyoftheotherfactorsbeingtestedatthetime.Therefore,iftheyarepresentduringtheexperimentthentheywouldshowasmeasurementsoferror.

OddsratiosTheoddsratioisameasureofeffectsize,describingthestrengthofassociationornon-independencebetweentwobinarydatavalues.

Predictiveaccuracy:classificationratios;ThecstatisticThecstatisticmeasureshowwellthemodelcandiscriminatebetweenobservationsatdifferentlevelsofthee.Itisthesameastheareaunderthereceiver-operatingcharacteristiccurve,formedbytakingthepredictedvaluesfromtheregressionmodelasadiagnostictestfortheeventinthedata.Theminimumvalueofcis0.5;themaximumis1.0.Appropriateness:R-squaremeasuresSignificance:Chi-squaretests(卡方測定

):

Chi-squareisastatisticaltestcommonlyusedtocompareobserveddatawithdatawewouldexpecttoobtainaccordingtoaspecifichypothesis.Chi-squarerequiresthatyouusenumericalvalues,notpercentagesorratios.Resultstheexploratoryfactoranalysis:highvalues(>0.8)Principalcomponentsanalysis:screeplot;eigenvaluegreaterthan1;Thesingleextractedcomponentexplains57%ofthevariancesignificant(>0.4)factorloadingsmultipleregressionmodelincludingthecandidatepredictorssignificant(n382,F48.78,p<0.001);explains40%ofthevariationinthedependentvariable.usedDTCadinformation:Morethan40%;discussedaprescriptiondrug:Almost42%;discussamedicalcondition:18.6%requestedtheirdoctorforadrug13.4%significant(p<0.01)chi-squaretestsHosmer–Lemeshowtest:TheHosmer–Lemeshowtestisastatisticaltestforgoodnessoffitforlogisticregressionmodels.Itisusedfrequentlyinriskpredictionmodels.Thetestassesseswhetherornottheobservedeventratesmatchexpectedeventratesinsub