語言學(xué)教程教案全部

英語語言學(xué)實 者：蘇州大推薦理由:本引入先進(jìn)的研究型教學(xué)理念，以學(xué)生需求為導(dǎo)向以師生互動為以促進(jìn)英語學(xué)習(xí)和培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的研究性思維和能力為目標(biāo)，為英語專業(yè)學(xué)生和教師提供一個全新的選擇。評對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)院博士生導(dǎo)師非教授認(rèn)為“這是國內(nèi)第一本以學(xué)習(xí)者為中心理念的語言學(xué)稱得上是以合作性教學(xué)與任務(wù)性教學(xué)方法編寫專業(yè)知識課程的典范?！北緯幸韵绿攸c：1、面向英語。從各種選取大量有趣、典型、體裁各異的英語素“英語”2、面向教學(xué)全過程。課前部分有適量的淺易閱讀材料PsReading，為課堂講解、討論做鋪墊，并通過一些真?zhèn)瘟?xí)題予以檢查閱讀情況；課內(nèi)有充足的包含語言學(xué)知識點的開放性互動話題n-Classctviies3(esentationopics。3、注重語言理論與語言事實的結(jié)合。以語言現(xiàn)象為驅(qū)動，大量戒理論與實踐的脫節(jié)4、注重語言學(xué)知識傳授與語言研究能力培養(yǎng)的結(jié)合。從課堂討論到練習(xí)設(shè)計培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的性思維并專辟兩章講解語言研究方法論，促進(jìn)學(xué)生研究能力的發(fā)展。5、注重傳統(tǒng)語言學(xué)理論知識與現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)前沿成果的結(jié)合。本在保留傳統(tǒng)語言學(xué)基本內(nèi)容的基礎(chǔ)上密切反映當(dāng)代語言學(xué)的領(lǐng)域的成果。1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?DifferentdefinitionsofLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedassystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanFeaturesofhumanlanguageLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareEveryspeakeruseslanguageLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofCertainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainCertainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.ThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.CulturalCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbeLanguageisawayoftransmittingAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceiveHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribeThelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-TheideationalToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordTheinteralfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.ThetextualToformaTypesofGeneticyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandSyntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGermanAgglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishThemythoflanguage–languageoriginTheBiblicalaccountLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.Thebow-wowtheoryLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.Thepooh-poohLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorTheyo-he-hoLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.TheevolutionLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.WhatisLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Observing&questioningFormulatingProposingatheoryBranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsFeaturesoflinguisticsDealingwithspokenlanguage-pter2PhoneticsWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.Sub-branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsThespeechorgansWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?FromthelungWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?ControllingtheairstreamWhatarethecavities?OralPharyngealNasalTranscriptionofspeechsoundsUnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)PhoneticsymbolsThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[ ][ Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n]Palatal:[ ][ ][t ][d ][j]Velar:[k][g][ Glottal:MannersofThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompleyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k]Fricatives:[s][z][ ][ ][f][v][ ][ ][h]Affricates:[t ][d Liquids:[l]Glides:[w]Nasals:[m][n][ Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionCriteriaofvoweldescriptionPartofthetonguethatisraisedExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionoftheKindofopeningmadeatthelipsPositionofthesoftpalateSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsPhoneticfeaturesandnaturalclassesClassesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalMajorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelClassificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbe Chapter3PhonologyWhatisphonology?PhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentins,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.PhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?WhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?PhonemesandallophonesAphonemeisadistinctive, soundunitwithadistinctivefeature.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution–Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution–SoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobecomplementaryIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.FreeIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctiveFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.PhonologicalrulesPhonemesare soundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]SyllablestructureAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormoreEverysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyaThenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.SequenceofNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.SomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.SequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalWhennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.Stressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Stressisarelativenotion.OnlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoorsyllableshaveIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.Whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishThesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.ChineseisatypicaltoneChapter4MorphologyWhatisThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.WordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithMorphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledaAmorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.WordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledFreeandboundSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).InflexionalandderivationalInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.EnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesDerivational:affixesPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-sFormationofnewwordsDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreeSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.Compoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.ThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningoftheConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.ClipisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingormoreClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformalSomeclippedwordshave ewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsi)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.Blendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),mo(motor+ho).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordintextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofthatislikebothaplaneandaBack-Back-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroparealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordeviseisback-formedfromevision.Originally,theword evisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixe-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffixsioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbevise.AcronymsandAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.Eponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.CoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-Formoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seenotesofPracticalEnglishChapter5SyntaxWhatisThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.Traditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatyzesthestructureofsentences.Whatisasentence?Syntaxistheysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.Asequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.KnowledgeofsentencestructureStructuralambiguityStructuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.Differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.example,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.Nativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.Thesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyouarehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SentenceSentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.SyntacticcategoriesAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:ThechildfoundtheAmanfoundtheThemanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.Hefoundtheknife.Alltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycalledphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.TraditionalIntraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.Sentencesareyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,…Compulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,Nouns:number,case,gender…Verbs:tense,aspect,voice…Adjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegreesAgreementinnumber//genderParsing:tryingtomakedetailedysisinStructuralStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalIntheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.FormFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.Linguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinsameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.Theselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.Immediateconstituent(IC)ysisStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofAsentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentOldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.Inthisway,sentencestructureisyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.Iwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.TwoadvantagesofICItcanyzesomeItshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.Transformational-generative(TG)grammarBackgroundandthegoalofTGChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.AdequacyofobservationAdequacyofdescriptionAdequacyofexplanationWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.TGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.SyntacticcategoriesNounPhrase(NP)VerbPhrase(VP)Sentence(S)Determiner(Det)Adjective(Adj)Pronoun(Pro)Verb(V)AuxiliaryVerb(Aux)PrepositionalPhrase(PP)Adverb(Adv)Phrasestructure(PS)rulesS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NNP→{VP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)PP→PNPTreediagramsRecursionandtheinfinitudeofScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowSub-categorizationoftheTheprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-ParticlemovementT-ruleJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.ReplacementT-ruleJohnbeatTom.HebeatThehouseneedsrepairing(tobeAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.DeletionT-ruleTheycameinand(they)satdown.CopyingT-ruleHeiscoming,isn’tHehasfinishedhis,hasn’the?ReflexivizationT-ruleIwashmeTGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.Systematic-functionalgrammarBackgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalM.A.K.LanguageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningasMeaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.MeaningisrealizedthroughThegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.Thethreemeta-functionsoflanguageIdeationalfunction alextualhetransitivitysystemofCategorizationofng–materialProcessesinvolvingphysicalactions:walking,running,throwing,kicking,wrap,etc.Actor,goalandBeing–relationalProcessesrepresentingarelationbeingsetupbetweentwoseparateBe(identifying),haveCarrier/possessorandattribute/possessedensing–mentalprocessrocessesofsensing,includingfeeling,thinking,perceiving,imagining,wanting,liking,etc.enserandLesscentraltypesoflinguisticVerbalprocesses–sayingSayerandBehaviouralprocesses–activeconsciousprocessesBehaverandrangeExistentialprocesses–existenceofanentityMoodandMoodexpressesthespeaker’sattitudeandservesforinter function.Itisasyntacticconstituentmadeupofthesubjectandthefinite.Modalityisthedegreeofcertaintyorfrequencyexpressedbythegrammaticalformsoffinite.ItcanbecategorizedbymodalizationThemeandThemeisthegiveninformation,whilerhemeisthenewinformation.John|ismyHe|shouldhaverepliedtomyChapter6SemanticsWhatissemantics?Semanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.Semanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.InititisysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandoutofReferenceandLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.Referenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.Somewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintheworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andItisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,SpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.Senseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itisrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sormind.mind.ThestudyofmeaningfromofsenseiscalledClassificationoflexicalReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,stable,moreculture-Connotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,Socialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtoReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationanothersenseofthesameexpressionCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitLexicalsenserelationsSynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.Dialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guySynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchlorideSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–Synonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.AntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinGradableantonyms–pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.Complementaryantonyms–wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/deadReversal(relational)antonyms–wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,Antonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.Homonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.Homographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[](v.)/tear[]Homophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning:see/seaFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)Rhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.ApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedPolysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.HyponymyisarelationofTiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.Thiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.ComponentialysisComponentialysisistheapproachthatyzewordmeaningposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.ItshowsthesemanticfeaturesofMan:+HUMAN+MALEBoy:+HUMAN+MALEFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTWordsandconceptsCategorizationreferstotheprocessbywhichpeopleuselanguagetoclassifytheworldaroundandinsidethem.ItisfundamentaltohumanInthepasttwodecadescognitivepsychologistsandcognitivelinguisticshavegainednewinsightsintothenatureofcategories.Aprototypeisasetthathastypical,centralfeatures.Othersareperipheralfeatures,whicharenottypicalbutrelated.ConceptualnetworkSentencialsenserelations–semanticrelationsofSentencesmayberelatedinsense.Iwillillustratesenserelationswithinandbetweensentences.Tautology:Thebachelorisunmarried.Contradiction:Thebachelorismarried.Inconsistency:Johnissingle./Johnismarried.Synonymousness:Johnbroketheglass./TheglasswasbrokenbyEntailment:Themeetingwaschairedbyaspinster./Themeetingwaschairedbyawoman.Presupposition:Samhasreturnedthebook./SamborrowedtheThesesemanticrelationsarefoundwithinorbetweenmeaningfulsentences.Therearesentenceswhichsoundgrammaticalbutmeaningless.Thesesentencesaresaidtobesemanticallyanomalous.Forexample:ColourlessgreenideassleepThepregnantbachelorkilledsomephonemes.FromrhetoricaldevicetocognitiveTheclassicalviewseesmetaphorasakindofdecorativeinadditiontoordinarylanguage,arhetoricaldevicethatmakeslanguageusecolourful.Anotherviewofmetaphor,whichhas emoreinfluentialinthepasttwodecades,holdsthatmetaphorsareacognitivedevice.MetaphorisanessentialelementinourcategorizationoftheworldandourthinkingCognitivelinguisticshasshownthatmetaphoris