英語(yǔ)構(gòu)詞法完整版課件

ChapterTwo

WordStructureandWordFormation

ComponentsofWordStructure

TypesofMorphemes

WordFormation

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》ComponentsofWordStructureMorpheme:Morphemeis“thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords”(Crystal,1985).Wordsaremadeofmorphemes.Wordtypes:One-morphemewords:log,clerk,soldier,etc.Tow-morphemewords:lovely,inexpensive,kindness,etc.Three-morphemewords:unacceptable,unskillful,etc.More-morphemewords:unskillfully,unimportantly,etc.

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》TypesofMorphemesContentmorphemesarethebasisofwords’meanings.Sometimestheycanbeusedindependently.Forexample,“teach”in“teacher”and“hope”in“hopeful”carrythebasicmeaningsofthetwowordsandtheycanalsobeusedindependently.Inthiscase,somescholarscallthemfree

morphemes,whichimplythattheycanexistfreelyandfunctionasthebasicunitsofasentence.Theyarealsoconsideredroots.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》TypesofMorphemesEnglishstemscanbecategorizedintotwotypes:Derivedstemscanbedividedintoseveralmorphemeswhicharecomposedofoneortwocontentmorphemesandoneortwogrammaticalmorphemes.Forexample,in“chopper”,“chop-”isacontentmorpheme;“-er”isagrammaticalmorphemewhileandin“doorman”both“door-”and“–man”arecontentmorphemes.AndStephenUllmanncallsthemtransparentwords（顯性詞）.Non-derivedstemsrefertoindependentcontentmorphemesthatcannotbefurtheranalyzed.Forexample,“axe,glove,book,etc.”areallnon-derivedstems.AndStephenUllmanncallsthemopaquewords(隱性詞).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》TypesofMorphemesMorphemeisalinguisticabstractionandaconcept.Itisrealizedinaspecificlinguisticforms,i.e.morphs（形素）.“Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning.”(BolingerandSears,1981)Morphemesareputinbraces（大括號(hào)）.Take“big”forexample.Itsmorphemeis｛big｝,itssoundformis[big]anditswritingformis“big”.Inmanycases,severalformsthatarecalledallomorphs

representonemorpheme.Takethepluralmorpheme｛s｝forexample.Itcanberepresentedbythethreemorphemicforms[s],[z]and[iz].Thethreemorphemicformsareconsideredtheallomorphsof｛s｝,asincats,dogs,liesandbuses.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation

Prevue:TheexpansionofvocabularyinmodernEnglishdependschieflyonwordformation.Thereisavarietyofmeansbeingatworknow.Themostproductiveareaffixation,compoundingandconversion.AccordingtoPylesandAlgeo(1982),wordsproducedthroughaffixationconstitute30%to40%ofthetotalnumberofnewwords;compoundingyields28%to30%ofallthenewwords;conversionbrings26%ofthenewvocabularyintomodernEnglish.Therestofthenewwordscomefromshorteningincludingclippingandacronymy,numbering8%to10%,togetherwith1%to5%ofwordsbornoutofblendingandothermeans.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation1.Prefixation:Prefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestobases.Prefixesdonotchangethewordclassofthebasebutonlymodifyitsmeaning.1)Negativeprefixesa-:meaning“not,without,oppositeto”asinapolitical,asexual,asocial,etc.dis-:meaning“not,theconverseof”asindisobey,discredit,disloyal,disorder,etc.in-(il-,ir-,im-):samemeaningasdis-asininaudible,illiterate,improbable,etc.non-:meaning“not,nothavingthequalitiesorcharacteristics”asinnonsmoker,etc.un-:thesamemeaningasdis-asinunwillingly,unbuilt,undemocratic,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)Reversativeorprivateprefixes(逆反前綴)de-:meaning“reversingtheaction,deprivingof”,withnounsasindecentralize,demystify,dehumanize,etc.dis-:meaning“reversingtheaction”,withverbsasindisallow,dispossess,etc.un-:themeaningasde-withverbsasinunbug,unlock,unwrap;butmeaning“deprivingof,releasingfrom”inlimitedusewithnounstomakeverbsasinunseat,unhorse,unmask,etc.3)Pejorativeprefixes(貶義前綴)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationmal-:meaning“badly,bad”addedtoverbs,participles,adjectives,andabstractnouns,asinmaltreat,malformed,malodorous,malpractice,etc.mis-:meaning“wrongly,astray”,addedtoverbs,participlesandabstractnouns,asinmisinterpret,mistrust,misleading,etc.pseudo-:meaning“false,imitation”,addedtonouns,adjectives,asinpseudo-scientific,pseudo-classicism,pseudo-democratic,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationmicro-:meaning“verysmall”,theoppositeof“macro-“,formingtechnicaltermsasinmicrocomputer,microsurgery,microfilm,etc.mini-:meaning“l(fā)ittle”,usedwithnounsasinmini-bus,mini-camera,mini-market,mini-tour,etc.out-:meaning“surpassing”,withverbs,nounsandadjectivestoformnewtransitiveverbsasinoutswim,outlive,outwit,outclass,etc.over-:meaning“excessive”,addedtoadjectives,verbsandnouns,asinover-anxious,over-protective,over-react,overestimate,etc.sub-:meaning“secondary,lessimportant”,productiveinthissensewithnounstoformnewnouns,e.g.sub-system,sub-heading,sub-contractor,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationsuper-:meaning“morethan,beyond,veryspecial”,productivewithadjectivesandnounstoformwordsofthesameclassasinsuper-sophisticated,super-modern,super-simplification,supernatural,super-brain,etc.sur-:meaning“overandabove”addedtonounse.g.surcharge,surpass,surtax,etc.ultra-:meaning“extreme”,usedwithadjectives,e.g.ultra-conservation,ultra-intelligent,ultra-civilized,ultra-feminine,etc.under-:meaning“insufficient,beneath”,productivewithverbs,nounsandadjectives,asinunderpay,undervalue,undersurface,underground,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude

anti-:meaning“against,opposedto”,withnounsandadjectivesasinanti-abortion,anti-government,anti-neuclear,etc.contra-:meaning“opposite,contrasting”,asincontradistinction,contrafatural,etc.counter-:meaning“against,inoppositionto”,withnounsandverbs,asincounter-espionage,counter-offer,counter-reform,-:meaning“for,onthesideof”withnounsandadjectivestoformnewadjectivesasinpro-democracy,pro-authority,pro-student,etc.Locativeprefixes(定位前綴):extra-:meaning“outside”,withadjectives,e.g.extra-curricular,extra-territorial,extra-marital,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation6)Prefixesoftimeandorder

ex-:meaning“former”withnounsasinex-professor,ex-lover,ex-husband,etc.fore-:meaning“before”withverbsandnounsasinfore-word,forethought,etc.post-:meaning“after”,withnounsandadjectivesasinpost-election,post-war,post-independent,etc.pre-:meaning“before,inadvance”,withnouns,adjectivesandverbs,e.g.pre-trial,pre-retirement,pre-industrial,etc.re-:meaning“again,back”withverbsandnounsasinremarriage,reread,reconsider,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation7)Numberprefixesbi-,di-:meaning“two”asinbicycle,bilingual,di-meter,dichotomy,etc.multi-,poly-:meaning“many”asinmulti-candidate,multi-purpose,multi-polytechnic,polysyllable,etc.semi-,demi-,hemi-:meaning“half”asinsemi-automatic,semi-naked,demigod,demi-devil,hemisphere,hemi-morphic,etc.tri-:meaning“three”asintriangle,tricolour,tripartite,etc.uni-,mono-:meaning“one”asinunisex,uniform,mono-centric,monorail,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation8)Conversionprefixes(逆反前綴)a-:addedtoverbstoproducepredicativeadjectivesasinasleep,awash,aglow,atremble,etc.be-:withnounstoformtransitiveverbsasinbefriend,bewail;withnounsplus–edtoyieladjectivesasinbewildered,bejeweled,beloved,etc.en-,em-:mainlywithnounsoradjectivestocreatetransitiveverbs,em-occurringtowordsbeginningwith[p,b,m],asinendanger,ennoble,enrich,embitter,empower,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2.Suffixation:Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases.Suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole;theirprimaryfunctionistochangethewordclasswithaslightmodificationofmeaning.Inthissense,wewilldiscusssuffixesintermsoftheirgrammaticalfunctions.(1)Nounsuffixes1)Denominalnouns:Thisgroupcanbecategorizedintotwotypes.Oneistheformationofconcretenouns,andtheotheristheformationofabstractnouns.Asfarastheformerisconcerned,wehavethefollowingsuffixes:

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation-eer(“skilledin,engagedin”,engineer),-er(“havingasdominantcharacteristic,denizenof”,teacher),-ess(“female”,empress),-ette(“compact”,cigarette),-let(“small,unimportant”,booklet)and

-ster(“involvedin”,trickster).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationAsforthelatter(abstractnouns),wehave:–age(“measureof,processorstate”,storage),

-dom(“state,condition”,martyrdom),-ery,-ry(“conditionorbehaviorassociatedwith”,slavery,devilry;alsomeaning“place”,bakery),

-ful(amountcontainedin”,armful),-hood(“state,condition”,adulthood),

-ing(“thematerialof”,tubing;alsomeaning“activityconnectedwith”,farming),-ism(“doctrineof,practiceof”,terrorism),-ship(“occupation,position”,governorship;alsomeaning“skillandability”,sportsmanship;andmeaning“relation”,friendship).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation-ation,-ition,-sion,-ion(“action,process,state”or“productof,institutionproducedby”,operation,realization),-ence,(“action,process,state”,persistence),

-ing(actionof”,wedding;alsoproducingconcretenounssuchasbuilding),

-ment(“resultof”,assessment),

-ity(“stateorcondition”,productivity),

-ness(“stateorquality”,youthfulness).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation3)Nounandadjectivesuffixes:-ese(“memberof,languageof”,Journalese,Americanese),

-an,-ian(“citizenandlanguageof”,Australian;alsomeaning“adherentto,relatingto”,Darwinian),-ist(“adherenttobeliefsandbehaviors”,socialist),

-ite(“adherentto,memberof”,Thacherite).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation3.Compounding(orcomposition)istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorebases.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.Soacompoundisa“l(fā)exicalunitconsistingofmorethanonebaseandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword”(Quirketal,1985).Compoundscanbewrittensolid

(silkman),hyphenated(honey-bee)andopen(teargas).3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation(1)Characteristicsofcompounds☆Phonologicalfeatures1)Compounds’wordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstconstituentwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallyaccented,asillustratedbelow:Compounds

Freephrasesa'fatheadafat'heada'hothouseahot'housea'blackhorseablack'horsea'greenroomagreen'room3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)Butthisisnotabsolute.Sometimes,theprimarystressmayalsofallonthesecondconstituentasinash-'blonde,bottle-'green,etc.☆

Semanticfeatures1)Acompoundwordisasinglesemanticunit(i.e.onewordness)thoughitmaybewrittenopen.Agreenhandisan“inexperiencedperson”,notahandthatisgreen;redmeatreferstobeeformuttonratherthananymeatthatisredincolor;hotdogisbynomeansadogthatishotbutatypicalAmericansausageinbetweentwopiecesofbread.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)However,alotofcompoundsaretransparent,thatis,themeaningcanbeobtainedfromtheseparateelementsofthecompounds.Flowerpotisjustthecase.Butthetwoelementsareinseparableandthechangeoftheelementwillresultinthelossoftheoriginalidentity.☆Grammaticalfeatures1)Compoundstendtofillasinglegrammaticalslotinasentence,forexample,thatofaverb,anoun,oranadjective.Bad-mouthusedasaverbcantakethethirdpersonsingular–sandthepasttensemarker–ed,e.g.“Hebad-mouthedme.’(BoligerandSears,1981)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)Inadjective-plus-nouncompounds,theadjectiveelementcannottaketheinflectionalsuffixes.Comparethefollowing:Compounds

Freephrasesfineartfinerartredtapereddesttapehotlinehotterline3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation(1)Formationofcompounds:Compoundscanfunctionasanyoftheworldclasses,butthemostproductivecompoundsarenouns,adjectivesandverbs.☆Nouncompounds1)Formationofnouncompounds:n+n:moonwalk,endproductn+v:

toothache,frostbitev+n:

crybaby,tell-talea+n:

deadline,blueprintn+v-ing:brainwashing,air-conditioning3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationv-ing+n:cleaninglady,wadingbirdn+v-er:stockholder,crimereporteradv+v:outbreak,downfallv+adv:

sit-in,have-notv-ing+adv:going-over,carryings-onadv+v-ing:up-bring2)Relationshipbetweenconstituentsofnouncompounds:3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationSubject+verbdaybreakThedaybreaks.glowwormThewormglows.dancinggirlThegirldances.Verb+objecthandshakeShakehands.meatdeliveryDelivermeat.housekeepingKputer-designerDesigncomputers.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationVerb+adverbialhiding-placeHideinaplace.city-dwellerDwellinthecity.sleeping-walkWalkinone’ssleep.day-dreamerDreamduringtheday.sewingmachineSewwithamachine.handwritngWritebyhand.shadow-boxingBoxagainstashadow.Subject+objectairrifleAir[operates]therifle.powerplantTheplant[produces]power.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationSubject+complementgirlfriendThefriendisagirl.longboatTheboatislong.safty-beltThebeltisforsafety.☆A(yù)djectivecompounds

1)Formationofadjectivecompounds:n+v-ing:law-abiding,record-breakinga+v-ing:

easy-going,high-sounding3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationn+a:

warweary,thread-barea+a:

deaf-mute,bitter-sweatn+v-ed:

custom-built,town-breada(adv)+v-ed:far-fetched,hard-wonn(a)+n-ed:

short-sighted,lion-heartednum+n:

ten-storey,four-legnum+n-ed:

one-eyed,two-leggedadv+v-ing:forth-coming,out-goingv-ed+adv:worn-out,washed-up3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)RelationshipbetweenconstituentsofadjectivecompoundsVerb+objectivebreath-takingTakebreath.life-givingGiveone’slife.verb+adverbialfist-fightingFightwithfists.home-makeMakeathome.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationVerb+predicativesweet-smellingSmellsweet.good-lookingLookgood.Noun-adverbial+adjectivehomesickSickbecauseofmissinghome.tax-freeFreeoftax.CoordinatingrelationSino-AmericanFranco-German

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation☆Verbcompounds

1)Formationofadjectivecompounds:Throughconversion

（轉(zhuǎn)換法）:nickname(n)tonicknamemoonlight(n)tomoonlightThroughbackformation

（逆成法）:chain-smokertochain-smokelip-readingtolip-read

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationThroughanalogy（利比法）:chain-drinkfromchain-smokedouble-bookfromdouble-checkSpecialcompoundsmadebytheauthor:IfeeljustIwasinamovie…aswechauffeur-driftedinthecity.(……乘車兜風(fēng)……)…shehadbeencathedral-lookingatAvignon.(……在Avignon教堂觀光……)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation4.Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanother.Newwordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense.Sincethesecompoundsareformedwithoutanyaffixes,theyarealsocalledzeroderivation（零位派生法）.Sincethewordsthataremadedonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,thisprocessisalsocalledfunctionalshift（功能轉(zhuǎn)換）.Acaseinpointforconversionistheword“round”usedinthefollowingsentencesbyLodwig&Barrette(1973):3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationHewasknockedoutinthefirstround.(n)

Roundthenumberofftothenearesttenth.(v)Theneighborsgatheredroundourbarbecue.(prep)Themoonwasbrightandround.(a)Peoplecamefromallthecountryround.(adv)Themostproductivecompoundsofthiscategoryareconversiontonouns,conversiontoverbsandconversiontoadjectives.Thethreetypesaretobediscussedinthefollowingsection.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationConversiontonouns1)Deverbal(由動(dòng)詞轉(zhuǎn)化的):*Almostallmonomorphemicverbscanbeusedasnouns,whicharesemanticallyrelatedtotheoriginalverbsinvariouswaysaccordingtoQuirk,etal:a.Stateofmindorsensation:doubtthestateofdoubtingwantwhatiswanteddesire,love,hate,smell,tasted,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationb.Eventoractivity:searchtheactivityofsearchinglaughtheactoflaughingattempt,hit,release,swim,shut-down,teach-in,etc.c.resultofaction:catchwhatiscaughtfindwhatisfoundreject,buy,hand-out,answer,bet,etc.d.Doer(行為者）oftheaction:helponewhohelpscheatonewhocheatsbore,coach,flirt,scold,stand-in,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormatione.Toolorinstrumenttodotheactionof:coverusedtocoversomethingwrapusedtowrapsomethingcure,paper,wrench,etc.f.placeoftheaction:passwhereonehastopasswalkaplaceforwalkingdivide,turn,drive,retreat,lay-by,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation*Manysimplenounsconvertedfromverbscanbeusedwithhave,take,make,give,etc.toformphrasestotaketheplaceoftheverbordenoteabriefaction:

havealook(smoke,swim,try,wash,etc.)takeawalk(rideglance,rest,shower,etc.)giveacry(grant,start,laugh,shudder,etc.)makeamove(guess,offer,slip,attempt,etc.)*Someareconvertedfromphrasalverbs,suchashand-out,stand-by,lay-by,shut-down,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)De-adjectival(由形容詞轉(zhuǎn)化的):Itisunusualtohavenounsconvertedfromadjectives.Unlikeverbs,notalladjectivesthatareconvertedcanachieveafullnounstatus.Somearecompletelyconverted,thusknownasfullconversion,othersareonlypartially,hencepartialconversion.*Wordsfullyconverted:Thistypehasallthecharacteristicsofnouns.Itcanbeusedtogetherwith“a(an)”orthepluralform“-s(-es)”toindicatesingularorpluralnumber.Theycanbe:3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationCommonadjectives

awhiteacrazyspecificsangriesagayaliberalfinalsnecessariesanativeaRepubliciandrinkablesvaluablesParticiplesandothersagiventen-year-oldsadrunknew-bornsyoungmarriedstwounknownsnewly-wedsofferings3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation*Wordspartiallyconverted:Thistypedoesnotpossessallthequalitiesanounhas.Theyhavetobeusedtogetherwithdefinitearticlesasnounswhileretainingsomeoftheadjectivefeatures,suchasthepoor,therich,theyoung,thewounded,theabstract,themostcorrupt,thepoorer,etc.Wordsofthiscategorygenerallydenoteagroupofthekind,astheyoung=youngpeople,theabstract=theabstractthings,etc.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation3)MiscellaneousConversion:Thistypecoversnounsconvertedfromconjunctions,modals,finiteverbs,prepositions,etc.asusedinthefollowingsentences:Wouldyoulikeawithorawithout?Bettertobeanalso-ranthananever-was.Lifeisfullofupsanddowns.Rubberglovesareamustifyourskinissensitivetowashingpowders.Hisargumentcontainstoomanyifsandbuts.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationConversiontoverbs1)Denominal:Verbsconvertedfromnounsaresemanticallyrelatedtotheoriginalnounsinavarietyofways.Quirtetalsummedupasfollows:a.toputinoronsthtopocketthemoney=toputthemoneyintothepockettocanthefood=toputthefoodintothecansb.togivesthortoprovidewithsthtosheltertherefugees=togivesheltertotherefugeestooilthemachine=toprovidethemachinewithoil3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationc.toremovesthfromtoskinthelamb=toremovetheskinfromthelambtojuicetheoranges=toremovethejoicefromtheorangesd.todowithsthtopumpwater=tobringwaterwithapumptoknifethesteak=tocutthesteakwithaknifee.tobeoractassthtonursethebaby=tobethenurseforthebabytocaptaintheteam=toactasthecaptainfortheteamf.tomakeorchangeintosthtocashthecheque=tochangethechequeintothecashtoorphantheboy=tomaketheboyanorphang.tosendorgobysthtomailtheletter=tosendtheletterbymailtobicycle=togobybicycle

3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)De-adjectival:Conversionofadjectivesisusedeithertransitivelytomean“tomakesthA”orintransitively“tobecomeA”,asin(a)Hewalkedcarefullysoasnottowethisshoes.and(b)Thephotographyellowedwithage.In(a),wetmeans“makesthwetandin(b)yellowmeans“becomeyellow”.3)Miscellaneousconversion:Thiscanbeillustratedbythefollowingexamples:Theintellectualsaremuchedagain.Wedownedafewbeers.Thestudentstut-tuttheidea.Butmenobuts.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormationConversiontoadjectives:Thistypeislessproductivethantheothertwobuthastobementioned.1)Conversionofnounstoadjectives(nounattribute)a.Massandmaterialnounscanbeusedasadjectives:anirongateagoldringabrickhouseawhitesilkscarfachalkboardasilvercoinalogcabincottonfieldsb.Nounsofotherkindsarealsofoundtobeusedasadjective:productionmanagertelevisionprogrammeamathproblemworldpopulationaconsumercityjobopportunity3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation2)Comparisonandcontrastbetweennounattributeandadjectiveattributea.Botharethesame,asin“prestigeuniversityforprestigiousuniversity,goldcrossforgoldencross,affluencesocietyforaffluentsociety,etc.”b.Bothshowagreatdiscrepancy,asin:stonehouse:ahousemadeofstonestonycushion:acushionashardasstonesbankruptcylawyer:alawyerwhodealswithbankruptcycasesbankruptbusinessman:abusinessmanwhoisbankrupt3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation3)Sound(Spelling)changesintheconversionofnounstoverbs:

Nouns

Verbshouse/-s/house/-z/abuse/-s/abuse/-z/advice/-s/advise/-z/mouth/-θ/mouth/-e/shelf/-f/shelve/-v/belief/-f/believe/-v/sheath/-θ/sheathe/-e/3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation4)Initialtoendstress'conduct(n)---con'duct(v);'extract---ex'tract(v);'permit(n)---per'mit(v)Insomecases,asubstantialchangeofpronunciationmayhappenasinbreath/e/---breathe/i:/;bath/α:/---bathe/ei/,etc.5.Blending（拼綴法）istheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledblendsorportmanteauwords.Forexample,flushisthecombinationofflashandblush,andsmogistheresultofsmokeandfog.3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation☆Structurally,blendingfallsintofourmajorcategories:1)head+tail（第一個(gè)詞的首部和第二個(gè)詞的尾部）botel(boat+hotel);autocide(automobile+suicide)2)head+head（保留兩個(gè)詞的首部）psywar(psychological+warfare);Amerind(American+Indian)3)head+word（保留第一個(gè)詞的首部和第二個(gè)詞的原形）helipad(helicopter+pad);medicaid

(medical+aid)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation4)word+tail（保留第一個(gè)詞的原形和第二個(gè)詞的尾部）workfare(work+welfare);bookmobile(book+automobile)☆Stylistically,blendingfallsintothreemajorcategories:1)Slangortemporarywords:usedinblending---humoroussmog,motelmangy(mean+stingy),etc.2)Technicaltermsbiorhythm(biologicalrhythm生理節(jié)奏),glassphalt(glass+asphalt作鋪路用的玻璃顆粒物),etc.3)TermsfornewspaperorjournalsAlongNixonbacker,heassumesadawkstanceontheproblem.作為長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)一貫支持尼克松的人物，他在越南問(wèn)題上持半“鴿”半“鷹”的中間立場(chǎng)。(dawk=dove+hawk)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation6.Clippingistoshortenorclipalongerword.Itistheformationofnewwordsbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.Forexample,busistheclippingofomnibus,andbikeistheclippingofbicycle.Therearefourcommontypesofclipping.☆Frontclipping:

quake(earthquake)

copter(helicopter)chute(parachute)phone(telephone)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation☆Backclipping:

deli(delicatessen);stereo(stereophonic);fan(fanatic);gent(gentleman)☆

Frontandbackclipping:flu(influenza);jams(pajamas);fridge(refridgerator)☆

Phraseclipping:

pub

(publichouse);pop(popularmusic)

zoo(zoologicalgaeden);perm(permanentwaves)3/13/2023豐國(guó)欣：《英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)》WordFormation7.Acronym（首字母拼音法）istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofcompositenamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorphrasesusedastechnicalterms.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledacronyms,whic