語(yǔ)言學(xué)重點(diǎn)總結(jié)

Chapter6

Cognitionisthementalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.

Thereexistthreeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:theformalapproach,thepsychologicalapproachandtheconceptualapproach.

TheFormalapproachbasicallyaddressesthestructuralpatternsexhibitedbytheovertaspectoflinguisticforms,largelyabstractedawayfromorregardedasautonomousfromanyassociatedmeaning.

ThePsychologicalapproachlooksatlanguagefromtheperspectiveofrelativelygeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception,memory,andattentiontoreasoning.

Theconceptualapproachisconcernedwiththepatternsinwhichandtheprocessesbywhichconceptualcontentisorganizedinlanguage.

Structurewillbeusedtoreferbothtopatternsandtoprocess,theconceptualapproachcanmoresimplybesaidtoaddresshowlanguagestructuresconceptualcontent.

Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.

Sixaspectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:①Acquisition②Comprehension③Production④Disorders

⑤Languageandthought⑥Neurocognition

Languageacquisition:①Holophrasticstage②Two-wordstage③Stageofthree-wordutterances④Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage

Connectionisminpsycholinguisticsclaimsthatreadersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.

Languagecomprehension:①wordrecognition②comprehensionofsentences③comprehensionoftext

Cohortmodel:thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.

Interactivemodelholdsthathigherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.

Theracemodeldoesnotagree“top-down”effects,ithastworoutesthatraceeachother----apre-lexicalroute,

whichcomputesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal,andalexicalroute,inwhichthephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessed.

Serialmodelsproposethatthesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.

Parallelmodelsemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexicalandcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.

Inresonancemodel,informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.

Languageproduction:①Accesstowords②Generationofsentences③WrittenlanguageproductionFunctionalplanningprocessassignsgrammaticalfunctionssuchassubject,verbordirectobject.

Positionalencodingusestheretrievedlexicon-grammarunitsandthefunctionstheyhavebeenassignedtogeneratesyntacticstructuresthatcapturethedependenciesamongconstituentsandtheirorder.

Cognitivelinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.

Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.

Construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessedandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.

①Attention/Salience②Judgment/Comparison③Perspective/Situatedness

Trajectorreferstoadynamicfigureandlandmarktothegroundofamovingfigure.

Deixisinvolveslinguisticformsthatpointatsomethingfromthespeechsituation.

Categorizationistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.

Therearethreelevelsincategories:①thebasiclevel②thesuperordinatelevel③thesubordinatelevel

Thecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.

Superordinatecategoriesarethemostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenough

featuresincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.

Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.①Acenter-peripheryschema:Itinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore②Acontainmentschema:Itisanimageschemathatinvolvesaphysicalprmetaphoricalboundary,enclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.③Acycleschema:Itinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.④Aforceschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.⑤Alinkschema:Itconsistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andtheboundbetweenthem.⑥Apart-wholeschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.⑦Apathschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.⑧Ascaleschema:Itinvolvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount.⑨Averticalityschema:Itinvolves“up”and“down”relations.

Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.

Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.

Threecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors:ontologicalmetaphors,structuralmetaphors,andorientationalmetaphors.

Ontologicalmetaphormeansthathumanexperienceswithphysicalobjecetsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.

Structuralmetaphorplaystheimportantrolebecauseitallowsustogobeyondorientationandreferringandgivesusthepossibilitytostructureoneconceptaccordingtoanother.

Orientationalmetaphorgivesaconceptaspatialorientation.Theyarecharacterizednotsomuchbystructuringoneconceptintermsofanother,butbyaco-occurrenceinourexperience.

Metonymyisdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalprocesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.

WehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:①SignICMs②ReferenceICMs③ConceptICMs

Blendingtheoryorintegrationtheoryisacognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspaces”areintegratedviaprojectionintoanew,blendedspacewhichhasitsuniquestructure.

Chapter7Language,CultureandSociety

Contextofsituation:

A.Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalities

i.Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.

ⅱ.Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.

B.Therelevantobjects.

C.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.

Ethnographyofcommunication:anauthoritativeresearchframeworkofourtimeinalinguisticstudyofsocialandculturalfactors.Theessentialelementssuggestedbythisframeworkinclude①speechcommunity②situation,eventandact③mnemonicspeakingcomponents.

Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Followingthisargument,twoimportantpointscouldbecapturedinthistheory.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.

Linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.

Linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.

Duringcross-culturalcommunication,therearefivetypesofsub-cultureweshouldbefullyawareof:①ecologicalculture②linguisticculture③religiousculture④materialculture⑤socialculture

Linguisticuniversalityisthesimilaritiespossessedbymostlanguages,insteadoftheirassumeddifferences.Thereareatleastthreeobjectivesforustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:

1.Togetthestudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferences

2.Togetthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewill

3.Toemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvarious

classroompractices

Socialfactorsofinfluencingourlanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext:a)classb)genderc)aged)ethnicidentity

e)educationbackgroundf)occupationg)religiousbeliefWomenregister’sfeatures:

1)Womenusemore“fancy”colorwordssuchas“mauve”and“beige”

2)Womenuselesspowerfulcursewords

3)Womenusemoreintensifierssuchas“terrible”and“awful”

4)Womenusemoretagquestions

5)Womenusemorestatementquestionslike“Dinnerwillbereadyatseveno’clock?”(witharising

intonationattheend)

6)Women’slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectand,hence,morepolitethanmen’s.

Linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmenandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.

Sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontopotentialsocioculturalfactorsinasocialcontext.

Sociolinguisticsofsociety:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.

Communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,erningtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.

Sociolinguisticshasmadesomeimportantcontributions:

1.Sociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteaching

2.Ithasalsocontributedtoinnovationsinmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom

3.Ithascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduse

4.Ithascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfield

Tripartitemodelforsuccessfulcommunication:

1.trytolookatthingsfromotherpersons’pointofview

2.trytosensetheirfeelingtoagivenissue

3.trytounderstandingtheirwayofknowingtheworld

Genderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis“genderdifference”

Variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.

Chapter8LanguageinUse

Performative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.

Constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.

Locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.

Illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.

Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

Conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.

Cooperativeprinciple:

Quantity

1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).

2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Quality

Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.

1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;

2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Relevance

Berelevant.

Manner

Beperspicuous.

1.Avoidobscurityofexpression

2.Avoidambiguity

3.bebrief(avoidprolixity)

4.Beorderly.

Entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,“Maryisnotstandingstill”.

Ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-inferential.

Communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.

Relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.

Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionsufficient(ofquantity1);Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).

R-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).

Divisionofpragmaticlabor:theuseofamarkedrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarked(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).

Constraintso