土木工程專業(yè)英語課文原文與對照翻譯

..CivilEngineeringCivilengineering,theoldestoftheengineeringspecialties,istheplanning,design,construction,andmanagementofthebuiltenvironment.Thisenvironmentincludesallstructuresbuiltaccordingtoscientificprinciples,fromirrigationanddrainagesystemstorocket-launchingfacilities.土木工程學(xué)作為最老的工程技術(shù)學(xué)科,是指規(guī)劃,設(shè)計,施工及對建筑環(huán)境的管理。此處的環(huán)境包括建筑符合科學(xué)規(guī)范的所有結(jié)構(gòu),從灌溉和排水系統(tǒng)到火箭發(fā)射設(shè)施。Civilengineersbuildroads,bridges,tunnels,dams,harbors,powerplants,waterandsewagesystems,hospitals,schools,masstransit,andotherpublicfacilitiesessentialtomodernsocietyandlargepopulationconcentrations.Theyalsobuildprivatelyownedfacilitiessuchasairports,railroads,pipelines,skyscrapers,andotherlargestructuresdesignedforindustrial,commercial,orresidentialuse.Inaddition,civilengineersplan,design,andbuildcompletecitiesandtowns,andmorerecentlyhavebeenplanninganddesigningspaceplatformstohouseself-containedcommunities.土木工程師建造道路,橋梁,管道,大壩,海港,發(fā)電廠,給排水系統(tǒng),醫(yī)院,學(xué)校,公共交通和其他現(xiàn)代社會和大量人口集中地區(qū)的基礎(chǔ)公共設(shè)施。他們也建造私有設(shè)施,比如飛機(jī)場,鐵路,管線,摩天大樓,以及其他設(shè)計用作工業(yè),商業(yè)和住宅途徑的大型結(jié)構(gòu)。此外,土木工程師還規(guī)劃設(shè)計及建造完整的城市和鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn),并且最近一直在規(guī)劃設(shè)計容納設(shè)施齊全的社區(qū)的空間平臺。ThewordcivilderivesfromtheLatinforcitizen.In1782,EnglishmanJohnSmeatonusedthetermtodifferentiatehisnonmilitaryengineeringworkfromthatofthemilitaryengineerswhopredominatedatthetime.Sincethen,thetermcivilengineeringhasoftenbeenusedtorefertoengineerswhobuildpublicfacilities,althoughthefieldismuchbroader土木一詞來源于拉丁文詞"公民"。在1782年,英國人JohnSmeaton為了把他的非軍事工程工作區(qū)別于當(dāng)時占優(yōu)勢地位的軍事工程師的工作而采用的名詞。自從那時起,土木工程學(xué)被用于提及從事公共設(shè)施建設(shè)的工程師,盡管其包含的領(lǐng)域更為廣闊。Scope.Becauseitissobroad,civilengineeringissubdividedintoanumberoftechnicalspecialties.Dependingonthetypeofproject,theskillsofmanykindsofcivilengineerspecialistsmaybeneeded.Whenaprojectbegins,thesiteissurveyedandmappedbycivilengineerswholocateutilityplacement—water,sewer,andpowerlines.Geotechnicalspecialistsperformsoilexperimentstodetermineiftheearthcanbeartheweightoftheproject.Environmentalspecialistsstudytheproject’simpactonthelocalarea:thepotentialforairandgroundwaterpollution,theproject’simpactonlocalanimalandplantlife,andhowtheprojectcanbedesignedtomeetgovernmentrequirementsaimedatprotectingtheenvironment.Transportationspecialistsdeterminewhatkindoffacilitiesareneededtoeasetheburdenonlocalroadsandothertransportationnetworksthatwillresultfromthecompletedproject.Meanwhile,structuralspecialistsusepreliminarydatatomakedetaileddesigns,plans,andspecificationsfortheproject.Supervisingandcoordinatingtheworkofthesecivilengineerspecialists,frombeginningtoendoftheproject,aretheconstructionmanagementspecialists.Basedoninformationsuppliesbytheotherspecialists,constructionmanagementcivilengineersestimatequantitiesandcostsofmaterialsandlabor,scheduleallwork,ordermaterialsandequipmentforthejob,hirecontractorsandsubcontractors,andperformothersupervisoryworktoensuretheprojectiscompletedontimeandasspecified.領(lǐng)域。因為包含范圍太廣,土木工程學(xué)又被細(xì)分為大量的技術(shù)專業(yè)。不同類型的工程需要多種不同土木工程專業(yè)技術(shù)。一個項目開始的時候,土木工程師要對場地進(jìn)行測繪,定位有用的布置,如地下水水位,下水道,和電力線。巖土工程專家則進(jìn)行土力學(xué)試驗以確定土壤能否承受工程荷載。環(huán)境工程專家研究工程對當(dāng)?shù)氐挠绊?包括對空氣和地下水的可能污染,對當(dāng)?shù)貏又参锷畹挠绊?以及如何讓工程設(shè)計滿足政府針對環(huán)境保護(hù)的需要。交通工程專家確定必需的不同種類設(shè)施以減輕由整個工程造成的對當(dāng)?shù)毓泛推渌煌ňW(wǎng)絡(luò)的負(fù)擔(dān)。同時,結(jié)構(gòu)工程專家利用初步數(shù)據(jù)對工程作詳細(xì)規(guī)劃,設(shè)計和說明。從項目開始到結(jié)束,對這些土木工程專家的工作進(jìn)行監(jiān)督和調(diào)配的則是施工管理專家。根據(jù)其他專家所提供的信息,施工管理專家計算材料和人工的數(shù)量和花費,所有工作的進(jìn)度表,訂購工作所需要的材料和設(shè)備,雇傭承包商和分包商,還要做些額外的監(jiān)督工作以確保工程能按時按質(zhì)完成。Throughoutanygivenproject,civilengineersmakeextensiveuseofcomputers.Computersareusedtodesigntheproject’svariouselements<computer-aideddesign,orCAD>andtomanageit.Computersarenecessityforthemoderncivilengineerbecausetheypermittheengineertoefficientlyhandlethelargequantitiesofdataneededindeterminingthebestwaytoconstructaproject.貫穿任何給定項目,土木工程師都需要大量使用計算機(jī)。計算機(jī)用于設(shè)計工程中使用的多數(shù)元件〔即計算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計,或者CAD并對其進(jìn)行管理。計算機(jī)成為了現(xiàn)代土木工程師的必備品,因為它使得工程師能有效地掌控所需的大量數(shù)據(jù)從而確定建造一項工程的最佳方法。Structuralengineering.Inthisspecialty,civilengineersplananddesignstructuresofalltypes,includingbridge,dams,powerplants,supportsforequipment,specialstructuresforoffshoreprojects,theUnitedStatesspaceprogram,transmissiontowers,giantastronomicalandradiotelescopes,andmanyotherkindsofprojects.Usingcomputers,structuralengineersdeterminetheforcesastructuremustresist:itsownweight,windandhurricaneforces,temperaturechangesthatexpandorcontractconstructionmaterials,andearthquakes.Theyalsodeterminethecombinationofappropriatematerials:steel,concrete,plastic,asphalt,brick,aluminum,orotherconstructionmaterials.結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)。在這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域,土木工程師規(guī)劃設(shè)計各種類型的結(jié)構(gòu),包括橋梁,大壩,發(fā)電廠,設(shè)備支撐,海面上的特殊結(jié)構(gòu),美國太空計劃,發(fā)射塔,龐大的天文和無線電望遠(yuǎn)鏡,以及許多其他種類的項目。結(jié)構(gòu)工程師應(yīng)用計算機(jī)確定一個結(jié)構(gòu)必須承受的力：自重,風(fēng)荷載和颶風(fēng)荷載,建筑材料溫度變化引起的脹縮,以及地震荷載。他們也需確定不同種材料如鋼筋,混凝土,塑料,石頭,瀝青,磚,鋁或其他建筑材料等的復(fù)合作用。Waterresourcesengineering.Civilengineersinthisspecialtydealwithallaspectsofthephysicalcontrolofwater.Theirprojectshelppreventfloods,supplywaterforcitiesandforirrigation,manageandcontrolriversandwaterrunoff,andmaintainbeachesandotherwaterfrontfacilities.Inaddition,theydesignandmaintainharbors,canals,andlocks,buildhugehydroelectricdamsandsmallerdamsandwaterimpoundmentsofallkinds,helpdesignoffshorestructures,anddeterminethelocationofstructuresaffectingnavigation.水利工程學(xué)。土木工程師在這一領(lǐng)域主要處理水的物理控制方面的種種問題。他們的項目用于幫助預(yù)防洪水災(zāi)害,提供城市用水和灌溉用水,管理控制河流和水流物,維護(hù)河灘及其他濱水設(shè)施。此外,他們設(shè)計和維護(hù)海港,運河與水閘,建造大型水利大壩與小型壩,以及各種類型的圍堰,幫助設(shè)計海上結(jié)構(gòu)并且確定結(jié)構(gòu)的位置對航行影響。Geotechnicalengineering.Civilengineerswhospecializeinthisfieldanalyzethepropertiesofsoilsandrocksthatsupportstructuresandaffectstructuralbehavior.Theyevaluateandworktominimizethepotentialsettlementofbuildingsandotherstructuresthatstemsfromthepressureoftheirweightontheearth.Theseengineersalsoevaluateanddeterminehowtostrengthenthestabilityofslopesandfillsandhowtoprotectstructuresagainstearthquakesandtheeffectsofgroundwater.巖土工程學(xué)。專業(yè)于這個領(lǐng)域的土木工程師對支撐結(jié)構(gòu)并影響結(jié)構(gòu)行為的土壤和巖石的特性進(jìn)行分析。他們計算建筑和其他結(jié)構(gòu)由于自重壓力可能引起的沉降,并采取措施使之減少到最小。他們也需計算并確定如何加強斜坡和填充物的穩(wěn)定性以及如何保護(hù)結(jié)構(gòu)免受地震和地下水的影響。Environmentalengineering.Inthisbranchofengineering,civilengineersdesign,buildandsupervisesystemstoprovidesafedrinkingwaterandtopreventandcontrolpollutionofwatersupplies,bothonthesurfaceandunderground.Theyalsodesign,build,andsuperviseprojectstocontroloreliminatepollutionofthelandandair.Theseengineersbuildwaterandwastewatertreatmentplants,anddesignairscrubbersandotherdevicestominimizeoreliminateairpollutioncausedbyindustrialprocesses,incineration,orothersmoke-producingactivities.Theyalsoworktocontroltoxicandhazardouswastesthroughtheconstructionofspecialdumpsitesortheneutralizingoftoxicandhazardoussubstances.Inaddition,theengineersdesignandmanagesanitarylandfillstopreventpollutionofsurroundingland.環(huán)境工程學(xué)。在這一工程學(xué)分支中,土木工程師設(shè)計,建造并監(jiān)視系統(tǒng)以提供安全的飲用水,同時預(yù)防和控制地表和地下水資源供給的污染。他們也設(shè)計,建造并監(jiān)視工程以控制甚至消除對土地和空氣的污染。他們建造供水和廢水處理廠,設(shè)計空氣凈化器和其他設(shè)備以最小化甚至消除由工業(yè)加工、焚化及其他產(chǎn)煙生產(chǎn)活動引起的空氣污染。他們也采用建造特殊傾倒地點或使用有毒有害物中和劑的措施來控制有毒有害廢棄物。此外,工程師還對垃圾掩埋進(jìn)行設(shè)計和管理以預(yù)防其對周圍環(huán)境造成污染。Transportationengineering.Civilengineersworkinginthisspecialtybuildfacilitiestoensuresafeandefficientmovementofbothpeopleandgoods.Theyspecializeindesigningandmaintainingalltypesoftransportationfacilities,highwaysandstreets,masstransitsystems,railroadsandairfields,portsandharbors.Transportationengineersapplytechnologicalknowledgeaswellasconsiderationoftheeconomic,political,andsocialfactorsindesigningeachproject.Theyworkcloselywithurbanplanners,sincethequalityofthecommunityisdirectlyrelatedtothequalityofthetransportationsystem.交通工程學(xué)。從事這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師建造可以確保人和貨物安全高效運行的設(shè)施。他們專門研究各種類型運輸設(shè)施的設(shè)計和維護(hù),如公路和街道,公共交通系統(tǒng),鐵路和飛機(jī)場,港口和海港。交通工程師應(yīng)用技術(shù)知識及考慮經(jīng)濟(jì),政治和社會因素來設(shè)計每一個項目。他們的工作和城市規(guī)劃者十分相似,因為交通運輸系統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量直接關(guān)系到社區(qū)的質(zhì)量。Pipelineengineering.Inthisbranchofcivilengineering,engineersbuildpipelinesandrelatedfacilitieswhichtransportliquids,gases,orsolidsrangingfromcoalslurries<mixedcoalandwater>andsemiliquidwastes,towater,oil,andvarioustypesofhighlycombustibleandnoncombustiblegases.Theengineersdeterminepipelinedesign,theeconomicandenvironmentalimpactofaprojectonregionsitmusttraverse,thetypeofmaterialstobeused-steel,concrete,plastic,orcombinationsofvariousmaterials-installationtechniques,methodsfortestingpipelinestrength,andcontrolsformaintainingproperpressureandrateofflowofmaterialsbeingtransported.Whenhazardousmaterialsarebeingcarried,safetyisamajorconsiderationaswell.渠道工程學(xué)。在土木工程學(xué)的這一支鏈中,土木工程師建造渠道和運送從煤泥漿<混合的煤和水>和半流體廢污,到水、石油和多種類型的高度可燃和不可燃的氣體中分離出來的液體,氣體和固體的相關(guān)設(shè)備。工程師決定渠道的設(shè)計,項目所處地區(qū)必須考慮到的經(jīng)濟(jì)性和環(huán)境因素,以及所使用材料的類型——鋼、混凝土、塑料、或多種材料的復(fù)合——的安裝技術(shù),測試渠道強度的方法,和控制所運送流體材料保持適當(dāng)?shù)膲毫土魉佟．?dāng)流體中攜帶危險材料時,安全性因素也需要被考慮。Constructionengineering.Civilengineersinthisfieldoverseetheconstructionofaprojectfrombeginningtoend.Sometimescalledprojectengineers,theyapplybothtechnicalandmanagerialskills,includingknowledgeofconstructionmethods,planning,organizing,financing,andoperatingconstructionprojects.Theycoordinatetheactivitiesofvirtuallyeveryoneengagedinthework:thesurveyors;workerswholayoutandconstructthetemporaryroadsandramps,excavateforthefoundation,buildtheformsandpourtheconcrete;andworkerswhobuildthesteelframework.Theseengineersalsomakeregularprogressreportstotheownersofthestructure.建筑工程學(xué)。土木工程師在這個領(lǐng)域中從開始到結(jié)束監(jiān)督項目的建筑。他們,有時被稱為項目工程師,應(yīng)用技術(shù)和管理技能,包括建筑工藝,規(guī)劃,組織,財務(wù),和操作項目建設(shè)的知識。事實上,他們協(xié)調(diào)工程中每個人的活動：測量員,布置和建造臨時道路和斜坡,開挖基礎(chǔ),支模板和澆注混凝土的工人,以及鋼筋工人。這些工程師也向結(jié)構(gòu)的業(yè)主提供進(jìn)度計劃報告。Communityandurbanplanning.Thoseengagedinthisareaofcivilengineeringmayplananddevelopcommunitywithinacity,orentirecities.Suchplanninginvolvesfarmorethanengineeringconsideration;environmental,social,andeconomicfactorsintheuseanddevelopmentoflandandnaturalresourcesarealsokeyelements.Thesecivilengineerscoordinateplanningofpublicworksalongwithprivatedevelopment.Theyevaluatethekindsoffacilitiesneeded,includingstreetsandhighways,publictransportationsystems,airports,portfacilities,water-supplyandwastewater-disposalsystems,publicbuildings,parks,andrecreationalandotherfacilitiestoensuresocialandeconomicaswellasenvironmentalwell-being.社區(qū)和城市規(guī)劃。從事土木工程這一方面的工程師可能規(guī)劃和發(fā)展一個城市中的社區(qū),或整個城市。此規(guī)劃中所包括的遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不僅僅為工程因素,土地的開發(fā)使用和自然資源環(huán)境的,社會的和經(jīng)濟(jì)的因素也是主要的成分。這些土木工程師對公共建設(shè)工程的規(guī)劃和私人建筑的發(fā)展進(jìn)行協(xié)調(diào)。他們評估所需的設(shè)施,包括街道,公路,公共運輸系統(tǒng),機(jī)場,港口,給排水和污水處理系統(tǒng),公共建筑,公園,和娛樂及其他設(shè)施以保證社會,經(jīng)濟(jì)和環(huán)境地協(xié)調(diào)發(fā)展。Photogrametry,surveying,andmapping.ThecivilengineersinthisspecialtypreciselymeasuretheEarth’ssurfacetoobtainreliableinformationforlocatinganddesigningengineeringprojects.Thispracticeofteninvolveshigh-technologymethodssuchassatelliteandaerialsurveying,andcomputer-processingofphotographicimagery.Radiosignalfromsatellites,scansbylaserandsonicbeams,areconvertedtomapstoprovidefarmoreaccuratemeasurementsforboringtunnels,buildinghighwaysanddams,plottingfloodcontrolandirrigationproject,locatingsubsurfacegeologicformationsthatmayaffectaconstructionproject,andahostofotherbuildinguses.攝影測量,測量學(xué)和地圖繪制。在這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師精確測量地球表面以獲得可靠的信息來定位和設(shè)計工程項目。這一方面包括高工藝學(xué)方法,如衛(wèi)星成相,航拍,和計算機(jī)成相。來自人造衛(wèi)星的無線電信號,通過激光和音波柱掃描被轉(zhuǎn)換為地圖,為隧道鉆孔,建造高速公路和大壩,繪制洪水控制和灌溉方案,定位可能影響建筑項目的地下巖石構(gòu)成,以及許多其他建筑用途提供更精準(zhǔn)的測量。Otherspecialties.Twoadditionalcivilengineeringspecialtiesthatarenotentirelywithinthescopeofcivilengineeringbutareessentialtothedisciplineareengineeringmanagementandengineeringteaching.其他的專門項目。還有兩個并不完全在土木工程范圍里面但對訓(xùn)練相當(dāng)重要的附加的專門項目是工程管理和工程教學(xué)。Engin