新加坡國(guó)際事務(wù)研究所-北非的核復(fù)興？阿爾及利亞、利比亞和埃及的事態(tài)發(fā)展（英文）-2021.5-23正式版

Occasional

Paper

322

May2021

NuclearRevivalinNorthAfrica?DevelopmentsinAlgeria,Libya,andEgypt

HEBATAHA

Africanperspectives

Globalinsights

Abstract

ThispaperexploresnuclearscienceandtechnologythroughtheprismofthreeNorthAfricancasestudies:Algeria,EgyptandLibya.Allthreecountrieshaveconstructedresearchreactors,albeitindifferentperiods.Egypt’sfirstresearchreactor–acquiredfromtheSovietUnion–becameoperationalin1961,anditbuiltanotheronein1992.Algeriaalsohastworesearchreactors,suppliedbyArgentinaandChinainthelate1980s.Libya,meanwhile,hasaSoviet-designedresearchreactor,constructedin1981.Accordingly,allthreecountrieshavebureaucraticandlegislativeinfrastructuretomanagenuclearscienceandtechnology,aswellasinstitutionsandcentresfocusingonnuclearsafety,support,trainingandexpertise.Thispaperanalysesandcontraststheircapabilitiesandtechnologies,whilepayingattentiontoinstancesofcollaborationbetweenthethreeNorthAfricancountriesonnuclearscienceandtechnology.

Inadditiontoexistingnuclearinfrastructure,thepaperalsolooksathistoricalandfutureplansfornuclearpowerplantsinthethreecountries.Egypt’splanstobuildtheAlDabaanuclearpowerplantarecurrentlyunderway,afterhavingsignedanagreementwithRussiatobuildfourreactors.Thiscomesafteralonghistoryoffailedplanstobuildnuclearpowerplants.Libyahasasimilar–albeitmorecontroversial–historywithnucleartechnology,whichincludesdiscussionswithSoviet,FrenchandBelgianfirmstobuildareactor,andaclandestinenuclearweaponsprogrammethatwasultimatelyrolledbackin2003.EvenwhileLibyawasembroiledinacivilwar,theLibyanAtomicEnergyEstablishmentwasstilldiscussingnationalplansforafirstnuclearpowerplant,althoughtentatively.Algerianofficials,similarly,havesoughttolaythegroundworkfornuclearenergyinthecomingdecades.Thispaperoutlinestheseplans,howtheyarepresentedtothepublic,andhowcitizenshavereacted.

Introduction

Thispaperaimstocontributetoanunderstandingofnuclearpolitics,scienceandtechnologyinthreeNorthAfricancountries.ItdiscussesthehistoryandpoliticsofLibya,AlgeriaandEgyptintermsofnuclearresearch,includingpreviousandfutureplanstopursuenuclearenergy.Thesetechno-nationalistendeavours–requiringactiveofficialbackingandresourcededication–arelarge,complexandbureaucratic.Allthreecountrieshavehadresearchreactorsforseveraldecades.However,bothacademicandpolicycircleshavelargelyoverlookedthisformofnucleartechnologyinfavourofafocusonnuclearweaponsandproliferation.1ThisisespeciallyrelevantinthecontextoftheMiddleEast,

Thediscussionon‘horizontalproliferation’becameamainconcerninsecuritystudiesaftertheColdWar.See,forexample,BarryBuzanandLeneHansen,TheEvolutionofInternationalSecurityStudies(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),100.

2 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

wherestudiesonpublicpolicyhavetendedtoignorenucleartechnologybeyondthefocusonproliferation.2

Seekingtofillthisgap,thispaperpayscloserattentiontothepoliticsbehindthepeacefulapplicationofnuclearscienceandtechnologyinNorthAfrica.Thethreecasestudiesarecomparablenotonlybecauseoftheirgeographicproximityandsimilartrajectoriesonnuclearenergybutalsobecausetheyhaveadoptedsimilardiscoursesonnuclearscience,technologyandenergy.Inadditiontobuildingresearchreactors,theyhaveallexpressedalong-standinginterestinbuildingnuclearpowerplants.Egypt,forexample,hastakenconcretestepstobuildfoursuchpowerplants.Algeriahasproposedambitioustimelinesfordevelopingnuclearenergycapabilitiesand,afterthe2018uprising,hasre-affirmedtheseplans.Libya,meanwhile,isseekingtore-establishstabilityafteritscivilwar,butproposalsfornuclearenergycontinuetocirculate.

Manyofthenuclearenergyprojectsdiscussedheremayremainonpaper,talkedaboutandcontemplatedbyofficialsbutnotnecessarilyactedupon.Indeed,manyremainunrealisedowingtoavarietyofreasons,rangingfromcosttopoliticalinstability.However,itisstillworthunderstandingandcontextualisingtheseideas,aswellasthelingeringattraction

tonucleartechnology.Whatarethemeaningandobjectivesofthesewidespreadnuclearaspirations?Whydothesestatesstillemphasisenuclearenergyafterdecadesoffailingtoact,anddespiterecentpoliticalupheavals?Whatistheparticulardiscursiveappealofnuclearenergy?Whatistheinstitutionalframeworkwithinwhichnuclearresearchhasbeenconductedinthesethreecasestudies?Finally,arethereanyinstancesofcollaborationbetweenthesecountriesinthefieldofnuclearresearchandtechnology?

Thispaperfirstintroduceseachofthecasestudies,withanemphasisonthehistoryofnucleartechnologyandinfrastructure,peacefulusesofnuclearscience,internationalagreementsandpolitics,plansfornuclearenergy,andpotentialobstaclesinrealisingtheseplans.ThesubsequentsectiondiscussesthedynamicsofcollaborationintherealmsofnuclearscienceandtechnologyinNorthAfrica.AbriefconcludingsectionreflectsontheimplicationsofthisstudyandplacesthethreecasestudieswithinthecontextofthecontemporaryregionaldynamicsoftheMiddleEastandAfrica.

Libya

Historyofnucleartechnology

Underpro-WesternmonarchKingIdrisI,LibyabecameamemberoftheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)in1963,andsignedthe

TreatyontheNon-Proliferationof

NuclearWeapons

(NPT)sixyearslater.However,withthecoupthatbroughtCol.Muammar

Forexample,seeBrunoTetrais,“TheMiddleEast’sNextNuclearState”(StrategicInsights,CenterforContemporaryConflict,

Monterey),

/?view&did=791235

.

3 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

al-Qaddafitopowerin1969,Libyasoughttoacquirenucleartechnologywithaneyetoestablishanuclearweaponsprogramme.Startingin1970,LibyanofficialstriedtobuyanuclearweaponfromChina,theSovietUnion,India,Pakistan,FranceandArgentina.3In1973Libyaalsosoughttoannexthe

AouzouStrip

innorthernChad,thoughttoberichinuraniumdeposits.

Atthesametime,Libyalaunchedaciviliannuclearprogrammein1971andcreatedtheAtomicEnergyEstablishment(AEE)in1973,whichremainsoperational.ItthenobtainedaSoviet-designed10MWresearchreactor,whichbecamefunctionalin1981andislocatedinTajuraintheGreaterTripoliareainnorth-westLibya.InthesameyearitfoundedtheSecretariatofAtomicEnergy,whichwastaskedwithoverseeingtheAEE.PriortosupplyingLibyawiththeresearchreactor,theSovietUnionhadinsistedonLibya’sratificationoftheNPT,whichhappenedin1975.In1984therewerearound750LibyanexpertsattheTajurareactor,althoughadeclassifiedUSintelligencereportfrom1985believedthattheywerestilllargelydependentonaround200Sovietspecialists.4TheTajuraCentreandAlFatahUniversityinTripolibothtrainedLibyanscientistsandengineers.Thecountrydeveloped

ahighlycomplexbureaucracy,andtheAEE’sownorganisationalstructurehasdozensofentities.5

Peacefulusesofnuclearscienceandtechnology

TheAEEcurrentlyoperatestheNuclearResearchCentreinTajuraandtheCentreforRadiologicalMeasurementsandTraining.Theformerproducesradioactiveisotopesforuseinagriculture,medicine,geology,biologyandindustry.Itsfacilitiescompriselaboratoriesfornuclear,solidstateandneutronphysics,aswellasformaterialscienceandengineering,radiationbiophysicsandothers.Itcarriesoutresearchanddevelopmentondesalination,whilealsoworkingwithhospitalsandclinicsonisotopeuse,trainingandradiologicalsurveys.6A2015articlenotesthatLibyahasmorethan125facilitiesinthemedicalsectorthatuseradioactivesources.7

Libyahasmorethan125facilitiesinthemedicalsectorthatuseradioactivesources

EtelSolingen,NuclearLogics:ContrastingPathsinEastAsiaandtheMiddleEast(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007),213.

Solingen,NuclearLogistics,213;‘TheLibyanNuclearProgram:ATechnicalPerspective’DirectorateofIntelligence,SW85-10017CV,SC00387/85,February1985,p.iii,

/nukevault/ebb423/docs/10.%20libya%201985.pdf

.

TheAtomicEnergyEstablishment’sofficialwebsitehasachartoutliningitsinternalstructure.SeeAEE,“AboutUs”(inArabic),

.ly/about-us/

.

AEE,“NuclearResearchCentre”(inArabic),

.ly/tc/

.

UsamaElghawiandHusamShames,“ManagementofRadioactiveWasteinLibya:CaseStudy”,JournalofHazardous,Toxic,andRadioactiveWaste20,no.3(2015).

4 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

TheCentreforRadiologicalMeasurementsandTrainingmanagesfuelandradioactivewaste,whichincludessupervisingradioactivewastemanagementoperations.8OwingtooilandgasexplorationandoperationinLibyathereisnaturallyoccurringradioactivematerial,creatinganeedforaradioactivewastemanagementsystemtoprotecttheenvironmentandhumanhealth.9TheAEEoverseestheBenghaziOfficeforRadiometry,whichwasestablishedtoprovideservicessuchasradiologicalanalysisandmeasurementoffoodstuffsandfoodprocessing.ItisunclearfromtheAEE’swebsitewhethersomeoftheseactivitieshavebeenplacedonholdasaresultofthecivilwar,whichwasinits10thyearatthetimeofwriting.AnewunitygovernmenthassincebeenformedinTripoliafterUN-sponsoredpeacetalks,butthefutureisuncertain.

Internationalisolationandre-integration

SeveralplanstobuildnuclearpowerplantsinLibyahavefaltered.Inthelate1970sandmid-1980sLibyahadanagreementwiththeSovietUniontobuildtwopowerplants,witheachreactorintendedtodeliver440MW.10Asiteonthecountry’snortherncoastwasselected.11Thepowerplantswereintendedtobothproduceelectricpoweranddesalinate

SeveralplanstobuildnuclearpowerplantsinLibyahavefaltered

seawater.However,therewerevariousdisputesbetweenthetwopartiesandtheplansultimatelyfellapart.LibyasubsequentlysoughttonegotiatewithaBelgianfirmtotakeoverthecontract;however,fearingtheproliferationofnuclearweapons,theUSpressuredtheBelgiangovernmenttorejectthedeal,andtheprojectwassuspendedindefinitelyin1986.WashingtoncutbilateralrelationswithLibyain1981andimposedsanctionsonthecountry.ThisinternationalisolationincreasedwithaLibyan’sinvolvementinthe

Lockerbiebombing

inDecember1988.Fromthe1980sto2003,LibyausedtheTajuraCentreinattempt

todevelopnuclearweaponcapabilities,aswellasnumerousothersitesforcentrifugeresearch,uraniumconversion,andstorageofstrategicmaterials.12Itsnuclearweaponsprogrammeintensifiedinthe1980sand,despiteUSsanctions,LibyamanagedtoprocureauraniumconversionfacilityfromJapan,forexample.

AEE,“CentreforRadiologicalMeasurementsandTraining”(inArabic),

.ly/crmt/

.

ElghawiandShames,“ManagementofRadioactiveWaste”.

ThomasO’Toole,“LibyaSaidtoBuySovietA-PowerPlant”,TheWashingtonPost,December12,1977,

https://www.washingtonpost.

com/archive/politics/1977/12/12/libya-said-to-buy-soviet-a-power-plant/5746253e-fcb3-4de8-8d12-ce7e13c2ad14/

.

UsamaElghawiandWedadEl-Osta,“TheAlternativeEnergySourcesandTechnologiesSuitableforLibyanFutureEnergyDemandMix”,InternationalJournalofEnergyTechnologyandPolicy11,no.1(2015):48–49.

NuclearThreatInitiative,“Libya”,

/learn/countries/libya/facilities/

.

5 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

InDecember2003LibyasignedanagreementwiththeUSandtheUKtoenditsnuclearweaponsprogramme

InDecember2003LibyasignedanagreementwiththeUSandtheUKtoenditsnuclearweaponsprogramme.ItbegancooperatingwiththeIAEAandsignedtheadditionalprotocolin2004.13Admissionofguilt(ie,havinganuclearweaponsprogramme)wasakeypartoftheagreement:Qaddafipubliclydeclaredthatthecountryhadpursuedacovertnuclearweaponsprogrammeandthatitwassubsequentlydismantled,withinternationalinspectorsensuringthedismantlement.LibyaworkedwiththeUS,theUKandtheIAEAtodismantleallnuclearmaterialsandequipment.TheTajuraCentrewasmergedwithothers,focusingonwaterandsolarpower,andtransformedintotheRenewableEnergiesandWaterDesalinationResearchCentre.In2006fuelattheTajuraplantwasconvertedfromhighlyenricheduranium(HEU)tolowenricheduranium.14Libya’srenunciationofitsnuclearprogrammehassincebeenpraisedasa‘model’fornucleardisarmament,althoughmanyanalystsremainsceptical.15

Libya’srenunciationofitsnuclearprogrammehassincebeenpraisedasa‘model’fornucleardisarmament,althoughmanyanalystsremainsceptical

Nuclearenergyplans

Aftertheagreementandthedismantlementofitsnuclearprogramme,Libyasoughttopursuepeacefulusesofnuclearenergy,signingagreementswithFrance,Canada,UkraineandRussia.Thecountryalsoestablishedaregulatorybodyin2009tomanageradiologicalandnuclearcontrol.16Asrecentlyas2010Libyawasrenewingplanstodevelopnuclearenergycapabilities.Itisworthnotingthatitisanoil-producingcountry,andalsohasnatural

ElghawiandEl-Osta,“TheAlternativeEnergySources”.

InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,ResearchReactorsinAfrica:ADirectory(Vienna:IAEA,2020),

/sites/

default/files/20/07/research-reactors-in-africa-2020.pdf

.

RichardNephew,“WhenTalkingaboutNorthKorea,Don’tMentionLibya”,Brookings,May29,2018,

/

blog/order-from-chaos/2018/05/29/when-talking-about-north-korea-dont-mention-libya/

.

FatmaGhangir,“NuclearEnergyinLibya”(Paper,JointANNuR-FNRBAWorkshoponMilestonesandInfrastructureforNewResearchReactorProjects,Cairo,May10–14,2015),

/main/ANNuR/Activity%20Documents%20%20Public/

Joint%20ANNuR%E2%80%93FNRBA%20Workshop%20on%20Milestones%20and%20Infrastructure%20for%20New%20Resear

ch%20Reactor%20Projects/Libya_presentation.pdf

.

6 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

gasreserves.Theoilsectorrepresentsnearly70%ofitsexportearnings,andithasbeenamemberoftheOrganizationofthePetroleumExportingCountries(OPEC)since1962.17

FollowingwidespreadprotestsagainstQaddafiduringtheArabSpringin2011,amulti-statecoalitionledbyNATOlaunchedanintervention.However,thesituationhasnotstabilisedsince.Thecivilwarhasmadeconditionsvolatile,andtherehavebeenconcernsthatLibyanrebelscouldusethenuclearcentreinTajuratocombineconventionalexplosiveswiththeremainingradioactivematerials.18

Despitethecivilwar,theAEEstillpursuesthepossibilityofnuclearenergy,ifonlydiscursively.Forinstance,a2015presentationbytheagencyoutlinedthenationalplanforthecountry’sfirstnuclearpowerplant.ItwasdescribedasstillbeinginPhase1:Pre-project,whereconsiderationsarediscussedpriortolaunchingtheprogramme.But,asothershavenoted,itisunlikelythatinternationalactorswillsignanagreementwithLibyaatthisstage.19Anotherpresentation,inDecember2017,arguedthatLibyashouldintroduceasmallmodularreactorforpetroleumpreservation,electricproduction,desalinationandenvironmentalpurposes.20However,thispresentationacknowledgedthepoliticalinstabilityandinsecurity,aswellasahistoryofmisuseofnucleartechnologyunderQaddafi.

Lookingahead

TheAEEhashighlightedthepoliticalsituationasakeyobstacletoitsabilitytofunction.AnexampleofthisisthedifficultiesassociatedinbringinginternationalexpertstovisitLibyaowingtotheshutdownofembassies.FallingunderthejurisdictionoftheUN-recognisedGovernmentofNationalAccord(GNA),theAEErecentlyaskedtheCouncilofMinisterstoreviewtheconditionshinderingitsabilitytoproceedwithitswork.OntheAEE’sofficialwebsite,thechairpersonoftheBoardofDirectorsremindsvisitorsthatdespitethechallengingpoliticalcircumstances,theinstitutionhasavision,missionandgoalsthatitisstrivingtoachieve.21Thestatementcallsonthestateandrelevantauthoritiestocarryoutkeyreformsthatwillenabletheinstitutiontocarryoutitsworkwithoutinterruptionsandtransferpracticalknowledgeacrossgenerations,notingthatotherwisetheinstitutionmaybeparalysed.

LibyastillcooperateswiththeIAEA,andsignedaCountryProgrammeFrameworkin2019,highlightingitsprioritiesinusingnucleartechnologytosupportnationaldevelopment.22

OrganizationofthePetroleumExportingCountries,“Libya:FactsandFigures”,

/opec_web/en/about_us/166.htm.

“Ex-IAEAOfficialWarnsofLibya‘DirtyBomb’Material”,Reuters,August24,2011,

/article/libya-nuclear-hein

onen/ex-iaea-official-warns-of-libya-dirty-bomb-material-idINLDE77N04X20110824

.

Ghangir,“NuclearEnergyinLibya”.

AmalAlgahwajiandSanaEdoukali,“IntroducingNuclearTechnologyforCogenerationinLibya”(Paper,WorkshoponSmallModularReactorSafetyandLicensing,Hamamat,December12–15,2015),

/NSNI/SMRP/Shared%20Docum

ents/Workshop%2012-15%20December%202017/Introducing%20Nuclear%20Technology%20for%20Cogeneration%20in%20

Libya.pdf

AEE,“CentreforRadiologicalMeasurements”.

IAEANewsCenter,“LibyaSignsItsThirdCountryProgrammeFramework(CPF)for2019–2023”,October22,2019,

https://www.iaea.

org/newscenter/news/libya-signs-its-third-country-programme-framework-cpf-for-2019-2023

.

7 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

Furthermore,theAEEcontinuestoseektobuildnationalandscientificcapabilityforpeacefulnucleartechnology.InJanuary2019itrevealedthatitwasproceedingwithtalks,insideandoutsideLibya,tocreateascientificforumforexpertstodiscusspeacefulapplicationsfornucleartechnology,includingrenewableenergyandmedicine.

ThereislittleinformationinLibyaonpublicviewsonnucleartechnology,butthecountry’snuclearhistory–andthewaysinwhichQaddafisquanderedpublicfundsinpursuitofanuclearweaponsprogramme–remainscontroversial

ThereislittleinformationinLibyaonpublicviewsonnucleartechnology,butthecountry’snuclearhistory–andthewaysinwhichQaddafisquanderedpublicfundsinpursuitofanuclearweaponsprogramme–remainscontroversial.TherehavebeensomepublicationsdebatingthepotentialofnuclearenergyinLibya’sfuture.Forexample,atextpublishedbytheArabScientificCommunityOrganisationcomparesnuclearandsolarpower.Itnotesthat,whilethetrendappearstobeinfavourofnuclear,solarenergyismorefinanciallyviableandhasfewerpoliticalandsecurityrisks.23

Algeria

Historyofnucleartechnology

AfteralongandviolentstrugglewithFrenchcolonialism,Algeriabecameindependentin1962.Likemanyothernewlyindependentstates,itseffortswerefocusedondevelopingindigenouscapabilitiesforscienceandtechnology.Thisextendedtothenuclearrealm,andintheearly1970sAlgeriabegansettingupinstitutionsfortrainingnuclearscientistsandengineers,inordertoeventuallyestablishnuclearinfrastructure.24Discussionstoconstructanuclearpowerplantbeganin1975,andAlgeriaconductedfeasibilitystudiesinthedecadethatfollowed.However,theseplanshavenotyetmaterialisedandcontinuetobepostponed.

Inthe1980sand1990sAlgeriabegantoinvestmoreactivelyinnucleartechnology.Itestablishednuclearresearchcentresandinfrastructure.Thisculminatedintworesearch

Al-Za’ilik,“ForThoseWhoPreferNuclearEnergytoSolarEnergyinLibya”(inArabic),ArabicScientificCommunityOrganization,

March5,2015,

/article-detail-612-8-0

.

BrahimMeftah,“OutlookofNuclearEnergyinAlgeria”(Proceedings,InternationalConferenceonOpportunitiesandChallengesforWaterCooledReactorsinthe21stCentury,IAEA,Vienna,2011).

8 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

reactors.The1MWNurreactorisalight-watermoderatedpoolreactor,whichbecameoperationalin1989andisusedfortrainingandresearch.Itwassuppliedbythestate-ownedArgentinefirmINVAP,withanemphasisonAlgerianprofessionalandtechnicaleffortsaswellastheparticipationofAlgerianfirmsinitsconstructionandmaintenance,toensure‘thegenuinetransferoftechnology’.25ItislocatedinDraria,asuburbofAlgiersontheeastcoast.Thesecondreactor,Es-Salem,isaheavywatermoderatedtank-typereactorthatbecameoperationalin1992andhasanoutputof15MW.26SuppliedbyChina’sNationalNuclearCorporation,itisusedforscientificresearch,medicalisotopeproduction,hot-celllaboratories,wastestorageandothercivilpurposes.Itwasupgradedandmodernisedin201927andislocatedinBirine,250kmsouthofAlgiers,intheprovinceofDjelfa.

Peacefulusesofnuclearscienceandtechnology

Inadditiontotheresearchreactors,Algeriaestablishedinfrastructuretosupportnuclearresearch.TheCommissionofAtomicEnergy(COMENA)wasestablishedin1986andbecamepartoftheMinistryofEnergyandMines.COMENAisinchargeofAlgeria’snuclearresearchcentres:Al-Darariya,Algiers,PirinandTamanrasset.28Theagencyhandlesallnuclearresearchandtrainingandtheiruseinagriculture,industry,medicine,waterandenvironment.TheAlDarariyasitealsohousesapilotfuelfabricationplant.

Intermsofpeacefulapplicationsofnuclearscienceandtechnology,COMENAisinvolvedintheresearchanddevelopmentofradioisotopes,radiobiologyandradio-pharmaceuticalsfordiagnosis

Intermsofpeacefulapplicationsofnuclearscienceandtechnology,COMENAisinvolvedintheresearchanddevelopmentofradioisotopes,radiobiologyandradio-pharmaceuticalsfordiagnosis.Ithasalaboratoryforisotopehydrologyandhascontributedtostudiesonwaterresources,suchasdetectingdamleakage.Inaddition,COMENAhasacquiredagammairradiator,whichisusedforagriculturalapplications.Italsocarriesoutresearchonanimalreproduction,andworksontheexplorationofnuclearrawmaterialsinAlgeriaandthe

INVAP,“ReactorNur(Algeria):Introduction”,

/web/20070928035035//nuclear/nur/intro

-e.html

.

SidiAliKamelandBrahimMeftah,“IntroductionofNuclearPowerPlantsinAlgeria:PresentationofthedevelopmentofNP

Program,24–27January2012”(Presentation,USDepartmentofEnergy,OfficeofScientificandTechnicalInformation,OakRidge),

/etdeweb/servlets/purl/21544904

.

ChinaNationalNuclearCorporation,“CNNCCompletesAlgerianUpgrade”,March9,2019,

/2019-03/09/c_34

5830.htm

.

MoreinformationoneachofthenuclearresearchcentresisavailableatCommissariatàl’EnergieAtomique(inArabicandFrench),

ena.dz/

.

9 OccasionalPaper322|NUCLEARREVIVALINNORTHAFRICA?DEVELOPMENTSINALGERIA,LIBYA,ANDEGYPT

improvementofnuclearinstallationsanddevelopmentofcomputingsystems.COMENAworkswithvariousAlgerianuniversitiesandscientificcentres.Tofurtherdevelopnationalscientificcapacity,itmakestheuseofitsaccelerator,neutrongeneratorandotherfacilitiesavailabletotheAlgerianscientificcommunityasneeded.29

Internationalagreementsandcollaboration

Algeriahascollaboratedactivelyw