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Fromthewhitehouse
GeorgeWashington (1st)
OnApril30,1789,GeorgeWashington,standingonthebalconyofFederalHallonWallStreetinNewYork,tookhisoathofofficeasthefirstPresidentoftheUnitedStates."Asthefirstofeverything,inoursituationwillservetoestablishaPrecedent,"hewroteJamesMadison,"itisdevoutlywishedonmypart,thattheseprecedentsmaybefixedontrueprinciples."
Bornin1732intoaVirginiaplanterfamily,helearnedthemorals,manners,andbodyofknowledgerequisiteforan18thcenturyVirginiagentleman.
Hepursuedtwointertwinedinterests:militaryartsandwesternexpansion.At16hehelpedsurveyShenandoahlandsforThomas,LordFairfax.Commissionedalieutenantcolonelin1754,hefoughtthefirstskirmishesofwhatgrewintotheFrenchandIndianWar.Thenextyear,asanaidetoGen.EdwardBraddock,heescapedinjuryalthoughfourbulletsrippedhiscoatandtwohorseswereshotfromunderhim.
From1759totheoutbreakoftheAmericanRevolution,WashingtonmanagedhislandsaroundMountVernonandservedintheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses.Marriedtoawidow,MarthaDandridgeCustis,hedevotedhimselftoabusyandhappylife.Butlikehisfellowplanters,WashingtonfelthimselfexploitedbyBritishmerchantsandhamperedbyBritishregulations.Asthequarrelwiththemothercountrygrewacute,hemoderatelybutfirmlyvoicedhisresistancetotherestrictions.
WhentheSecondContinentalCongressassembledinPhiladelphiainMay1775,Washington,oneoftheVirginiadelegates,waselectedCommanderinChiefoftheContinentalArmy.OnJuly3,1775,atCambridge,Massachusetts,hetookcommandofhisill-trainedtroopsandembarkeduponawarthatwastolastsixgruelingyears.
HerealizedearlythatthebeststrategywastoharasstheBritish.HereportedtoCongress,"weshouldonallOccasionsavoidageneralAction,orputanythingtotheRisque,unlesscompelledbyanecessity,intowhichweoughtnevertobedrawn."Ensuing
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FirstPresident
1789-1797
Born:February22,1732inWestmorelandCounty,Virginia
Died:December14,1799inMountVernon,Virginia
MarriedtoMarthaDandridgeWashington
battlessawhimfallbackslowly,thenstrikeunexpectedly.Finallyin1781withtheaidofFrenchallies--heforcedthesurrenderofCornwallisatYorktown.
WashingtonlongedtoretiretohisfieldsatMountVernon.ButhesoonrealizedthattheNationunderitsArticlesofConfederationwasnotfunctioningwell,sohebecameaprimemoverinthestepsleadingtotheConstitutionalConventionatPhiladelphiain1787.WhenthenewConstitutionwasratified,theElectoralCollegeunanimouslyelectedWashingtonPresident
HedidnotinfringeuponthepolicymakingpowersthathefelttheConstitutiongaveCongress.ButthedeterminationofforeignpolicybecamepreponderantlyaPresidentialconcern.WhentheFrenchRevolutionledtoamajorwarbetweenFranceandEngland,WashingtonrefusedtoacceptentirelytherecommendationsofeitherhisSecretaryofStateThomasJefferson,whowaspro-French,orhisSecretaryoftheTreasuryAlexanderHamilton,whowaspro-British.Rather,heinsisteduponaneutralcourseuntiltheUnitedStatescouldgrowstronger.
Tohisdisappointment,twopartiesweredevelopingbytheendofhisfirstterm.Weariedofpolitics,feelingold,heretiredattheendofhissecond.InhisFarewellAddress,heurgedhiscountrymentoforswearexcessivepartyspiritandgeographicaldistinctions.Inforeignaffairs,hewarnedagainstlong-termalliances.
WashingtonenjoyedlessthanthreeyearsofretirementatMountVernon,forhediedofathroatinfectionDecember14,1799.FormonthstheNationmournedhim.
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JohnAdams(2nd)
Learnedandthoughtful,John
Adamswasmoreremarkableasa
politicalphilosopherthanasa
politician."Peopleandnationsare
forgedinthefiresofadversity,"he
said,doubtlessthinkingofhisown
aswellastheAmericanexperience.
Adamswasborninthe
MassachusettsBayColonyin1735.
AHarvard-educatedlawyer,heearlybecameidentifiedwiththepatriotcause;adelegatetotheFirstandSecondContinentalCongresses,heledinthemovementforindependence.
DuringtheRevolutionaryWarheservedinFranceandHollandindiplomaticroles,andhelpednegotiatethetreatyofpeace.From1785to1788hewasministertotheCourtofSt.James's,returningtobeelectedVicePresidentunderGeorgeWashington.
Adams'twotermsasVicePresidentwerefrustratingexperiencesforamanofhisvigor,intellect,andvanity.HecomplainedtohiswifeAbigail,"Mycountryhasinitswisdomcontrivedformethemostinsignificantofficethatevertheinventionofmancontrivedorhisimaginationconceived."
WhenAdamsbecamePresident,thewarbetweentheFrenchandBritishwascausinggreatdifficultiesfortheUnitedStatesonthehighseasandintensepartisanshipamongcontendingfactionswithintheNation.
HisadministrationfocusedonFrance,wheretheDirectory,therulinggroup,hadrefusedtoreceivetheAmericanenvoyandhadsuspendedcommercialrelations.
AdamssentthreecommissionerstoFrance,butinthespringof1798wordarrivedthattheFrenchForeignMinisterTalleyrandandtheDirectoryhadrefusedtonegotiatewiththemunlesstheywouldfirstpayasubstantialbribe.AdamsreportedtheinsulttoCongress,andtheSenateprintedthecorrespondence,inwhichtheFrenchmenwerereferredtoonlyas"X,Y,andZ."
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SecondPresident
1797-1801
Born:October301735inBraintree,Norfolk,Massachusetts
Died:July4,1826inBraintree,Norfolk,
Massachusetts
MarriedtoAbigailSmithAdams
TheNationbrokeoutintowhatJeffersoncalled"theX.Y.Z.
fever,"increasedinintensitybyAdams'sexhortations.ThepopulacecheereditselfhoarsewhereverthePresidentappeared.NeverhadtheFederalistsbeensopopular.
Congressappropriatedmoneytocompletethreenewfrigatesandtobuildadditionalships,andauthorizedtheraisingofaprovisionalarmy.ItalsopassedtheAlienandSeditionActs,intendedtofrightenforeignagentsoutofthecountryandtostifletheattacksofRepublicaneditors.
PresidentAdamsdidnotcallforadeclarationofwar,buthostilitiesbeganatsea.Atfirst,AmericanshippingwasalmostdefenselessagainstFrenchprivateers,butby1800armedmerchantmenandU.S.warshipswereclearingthesea-lanes.
Despiteseveralbrilliantnavalvictories,warfeversubsided.WordcametoAdamsthatFrancealsohadnostomachforwarandwouldreceiveanenvoywithrespect.Longnegotiationsendedthequasiwar.
SendingapeacemissiontoFrancebroughtthefullfuryoftheHamiltoniansagainstAdams.Inthecampaignof1800theRepublicanswereunitedandeffective,theFederalistsbadlydivided.Nevertheless,AdamspolledonlyafewlesselectoralvotesthanJefferson,whobecamePresident.
OnNovember1,1800,justbeforetheelection,AdamsarrivedinthenewCapitalCitytotakeuphisresidenceintheWhiteHouse.Onhissecondeveninginitsdamp,unfinishedrooms,hewrotehiswife,"BeforeIendmyletter,IprayHeaventobestowthebestofBlessingsonthisHouseandallthatshallhereafterinhabitit.MaynonebuthonestandwiseMeneverruleunderthisroof."
AdamsretiredtohisfarminQuincy.HerehepennedhiselaborateletterstoThomasJefferson.HereonJuly4,1826,hewhisperedhislastwords:"ThomasJeffersonsurvives."ButJeffersonhaddiedatMonticelloafewhoursearlier.
ThomasJefferson(3rd)
Inthethickofpartyconflictin1800,ThomasJeffersonwroteinaprivateletter,"IhaveswornuponthealtarofGodeternalhostility
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againsteveryformoftyrannyoverthemindofman."
Thispowerfuladvocateoflibertywasbornin1743inAlbemarleCounty,Virginia,inheritingfromhisfather,aplanterandsurveyor,some5,000acresofland,andfromhismother,aRandolph,highsocialstanding.HestudiedattheCollegeofWilliamandMary,thenreadlaw.In1772hemarriedMarthaWaylesSkelton,awidow,andtookhertoliveinhispartlyconstructedmountaintophome,Monticello.
Freckledandsandy-haired,rathertallandawkward,Jeffersonwaseloquentasacorrespondent,buthewasnopublicspeaker.IntheVirginiaHouseofBurgessesandtheContinentalCongress,hecontributedhispenratherthanhisvoicetothepatriotcause.Asthe"silentmember"oftheCongress,Jefferson,at33,draftedtheDeclarationofIndependence.InyearsfollowinghelaboredtomakeitswordsarealityinVirginia.Mostnotably,hewroteabillestablishingreligiousfreedom,enactedin1786.
JeffersonsucceededBenjaminFranklinasministertoFrancein1785.HissympathyfortheFrenchRevolutionledhimintoconflictwithAlexanderHamiltonwhenJeffersonwasSecretaryofStateinPresidentWashington'sCabinet.Heresignedin1793.
Sharppoliticalconflictdeveloped,andtwoseparateparties,theFederalistsandtheDemocratic-Republicans,begantoform.JeffersongraduallyassumedleadershipoftheRepublicans,whosympathizedwiththerevolutionarycauseinFrance.AttackingFederalistpolicies,heopposedastrongcentralizedGovernmentandchampionedtherightsofstates.
AsareluctantcandidateforPresidentin1796,Jeffersoncamewithinthreevotesofelection.ThroughaflawintheConstitution,hebecameVicePresident,althoughanopponentofPresidentAdams.In1800thedefectcausedamoreseriousproblem.Republicanelectors,attemptingtonamebothaPresidentandaVicePresidentfromtheirownparty,castatievotebetweenJeffersonandAaronBurr.TheHouseofRepresentativessettledthetie.Hamilton,dislikingbothJeffersonandBurr,neverthelessurgedJefferson'selection.
WhenJeffersonassumedthePresidency,thecrisisinFrancehadpassed.HeslashedArmyandNavyexpenditures,cutthebudget,eliminatedthetaxonwhiskeysounpopularintheWest,yet
fromthePresident'sCouncilonServiceandCivicParticipation.
ThirdPresident
1801-1809
Born:April13,1743inAlbemarleCounty,Virginia
Died:July4,1826in
MonticelloinVirginia
MarriedtoMarthaWaylesSkeltonJefferson
reducedthenationaldebtbyathird.HealsosentanavalsquadrontofighttheBarbarypirates,whowereharassingAmericancommerceintheMediterranean.Further,althoughtheConstitutionmadenoprovisionfortheacquisitionofnewland,JeffersonsuppressedhisqualmsoverconstitutionalitywhenhehadtheopportunitytoacquiretheLouisianaTerritoryfromNapoleonin1803.
DuringJefferson'ssecondterm,hewasincreasinglypreoccupiedwithkeepingtheNationfrominvolvementintheNapoleonicwars,thoughbothEnglandandFranceinterferedwiththeneutralrightsofAmericanmerchantmen.Jefferson'sattemptedsolution,anembargouponAmericanshipping,workedbadlyandwasunpopular.
JeffersonretiredtoMonticellotopondersuchprojectsashisgranddesignsfortheUniversityofVirginia.AFrenchnoblemanobservedthathehadplacedhishouseandhismind"onanelevatedsituation,fromwhichhemightcontemplatetheuniverse."
HediedonJuly4,1826.
JamesMonroe(5th)
OnNewYear'sDay,1825,atthelastofhisannualWhiteHousereceptions,PresidentJamesMonroemadeapleasingimpressionuponaVirginialadywhoshookhishand:
"Heistallandwellformed.Hisdressplainandintheoldstyle....
Hismannerwasquietanddignified.Fromthefrank,honestexpressionofhiseye...IthinkhewelldeservestheencomiumpasseduponhimbythegreatJefferson,whosaid,'Monroewassohonestthatifyouturnedhissoulinsideouttherewouldnotbeaspotonit.'"
BorninWestmorelandCounty,Virginia,in1758,MonroeattendedtheCollegeofWilliamandMary,foughtwithdistinctionintheContinentalArmy,andpracticedlawinFredericksburg,Virginia.
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FifthPresident
1817-1825
Born:April28th,1758inWestmorelandCounty,Virginia
Died:July4,1831inNewYork,NewYork
Asayouthfulpolitician,hejoinedtheanti-Federalistsinthe MarriedtoElizabeth
VirginiaConventionwhichratifiedtheConstitution,andin1790,anadvocateofJeffersonianpolicies,waselectedUnitedStatesSenator.AsMinistertoFrancein1794-1796,hedisplayedstrongsympathiesfortheFrenchcause;later,withRobertR.Livingston,hehelpednegotiatetheLouisianaPurchase.
Hisambitionandenergy,togetherwiththebackingofPresidentMadison,madehimtheRepublicanchoiceforthePresidencyin1816.WithlittleFederalistopposition,heeasilywonre-electionin1820.
MonroemadeunusuallystrongCabinetchoices,namingaSoutherner,JohnC.Calhoun,asSecretaryofWar,andanortherner,JohnQuincyAdams,asSecretaryofState.OnlyHenryClay'srefusalkeptMonroefromaddinganoutstandingWesterner.
Earlyinhisadministration,Monroeundertookagoodwilltour.AtBoston,hisvisitwashailedasthebeginningofan"EraofGoodFeelings."Unfortunatelythese"goodfeelings"didnotendure,althoughMonroe,hispopularityundiminished,followednationalistpolicies.
Acrossthefacadeofnationalism,uglysectionalcracksappeared.ApainfuleconomicdepressionundoubtedlyincreasedthedismayofthepeopleoftheMissouriTerritoryin1819whentheirapplicationforadmissiontotheUnionasaslavestatefailed.AnamendedbillforgraduallyeliminatingslaveryinMissouriprecipitatedtwoyearsofbitterdebateinCongress.
TheMissouriCompromisebillresolvedthestruggle,pairingMissouriasaslavestatewithMaine,afreestate,andbarringslaverynorthandwestofMissouriforever.
InforeignaffairsMonroeproclaimedthefundamentalpolicythatbearshisname,respondingtothethreatthatthemoreconservativegovernmentsinEuropemighttrytoaidSpaininwinningbackherformerLatinAmericancolonies.Monroedidnotbeginformallytorecognizetheyoungsisterrepublicsuntil1822,afterascertainingthatCongresswouldvoteappropriationsfordiplomaticmissions.HeandSecretaryofStateJohnQuincyAdamswishedtoavoidtroublewithSpainuntilithadcededtheFloridas,aswasdonein1821.
KortrightMonroe
GreatBritain,withitspowerfulnavy,alsoopposedreconquestofLatinAmericaandsuggestedthattheUnitedStatesjoininproclaiming"handsoff."Ex-PresidentsJeffersonandMadisoncounseledMonroetoaccepttheoffer,butSecretaryAdamsadvised,"Itwouldbemorecandid...toavowourprinciplesexplicitlytoRussiaandFrance,thantocomeinasacock-boatinthewakeoftheBritishman-of-war."
MonroeacceptedAdams'sadvice.NotonlymustLatinAmericabeleftalone,hewarned,butalsoRussiamustnotencroachsouthwardonthePacificcoast."...theAmericancontinents,"hestated,"bythefreeandindependentconditionwhichtheyhaveassumedandmaintain,arehenceforthnottobeconsideredassubjectsforfuturecolonizationbyanyEuropeanPower."Some20yearsafterMonroediedin1831,thisbecameknownastheMonroeDoctrine.
AbrahamLincoln(16th)
LincolnwarnedtheSouthinhisInauguralAddress:"Inyourhands,mydissatisfiedfellowcountrymen,andnotinmine,isthemomentousissueofcivilwar.Thegovernmentwillnotassailyou....YouhavenooathregisteredinHeaventodestroythe
government,whileIshallhavethemostsolemnonetopreserve,protectanddefendit."
Lincolnthoughtsecessionillegal,andwaswillingtouseforcetodefendFederallawandtheUnion.WhenConfederatebatteriesfiredonFortSumterandforceditssurrender,hecalledonthestatesfor75,000volunteers.FourmoreslavestatesjoinedtheConfederacybutfourremainedwithintheUnion.TheCivilWarhadbegun.
ThesonofaKentuckyfrontiersman,Lincolnhadtostruggleforalivingandforlearning.Fivemonthsbeforereceivinghisparty'snominationforPresident,hesketchedhislife:
"IwasbornFeb.12,1809,inHardinCounty,Kentucky.My
parentswerebothborninVirginia,ofundistinguished
families--secondfamilies,perhapsIshouldsay.Mymother,who
diedinmytenthyear,wasofafamilyofthenameofHanks....
Myfather...removedfromKentuckyto...Indiana,inmyeighth
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SixteenthPresident1861-1865
Born:February12,1809,in
Hodgenville,Hardin
County,Kentucky
Died:April15,1865.LincolndiedthemorningafterbeingshotatFord'sTheatreinWashington,D.C.byJohnWilkesBooth,anactor.
MarriedtoMaryToddLincoln
year....Itwasawildregion,withmanybearsandotherwild
animalsstillinthewoods.ThereIgrewup....OfcoursewhenI
cameofageIdidnotknowmuch.Stillsomehow,Icouldread,write,andcipher...butthatwasall."
Lincolnmadeextraordinaryeffortstoattainknowledgewhileworkingonafarm,splittingrailsforfences,andkeepingstoreatNewSalem,Illinois.HewasacaptainintheBlackHawkWar,spenteightyearsintheIllinoislegislature,androdethecircuitofcourtsformanyyears.Hislawpartnersaidofhim,"Hisambitionwasalittleenginethatknewnorest."
HemarriedMaryTodd,andtheyhadfourboys,onlyoneofwhomlivedtomaturity.In1858LincolnranagainstStephenA.DouglasforSenator.Helosttheelection,butindebatingwithDouglashegainedanationalreputationthatwonhimtheRepublicannominationforPresidentin1860.
AsPresident,hebuilttheRepublicanPartyintoastrongnationalorganization.Further,heralliedmostofthenorthernDemocratstotheUnioncause.OnJanuary1,1863,heissuedtheEmancipationProclamationthatdeclaredforeverfreethoseslaveswithintheConfederacy.
LincolnneverlettheworldforgetthattheCivilWarinvolvedanevenlargerissue.ThishestatedmostmovinglyindedicatingthemilitarycemeteryatGettysburg:"thatweherehighlyresolvethatthesedeadshallnothavediedinvain--thatthisnation,underGod,shallhaveanewbirthoffreedom--andthatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,shallnotperishfromtheearth."
Lincolnwonre-electionin1864,asUnionmilitarytriumphsheraldedanendtothewar.Inhisplanningforpeace,thePresidentwasflexibleandgenerous,encouragingSouthernerstolaydowntheirarmsandjoinspeedilyinreunion.
ThespiritthatguidedhimwasclearlythatofhisSecondInauguralAddress,nowinscribedononewalloftheLincolnMemorialinWashington,D.C.:"Withmalicetowardnone;withcharityforall;withfirmnessintheright,asGodgivesustoseetheright,letusstriveontofinishtheworkwearein;tobindupthenation'swounds...."
OnGoodFriday,April14,1865,Lincolnwasassassinatedat
Ford'sTheatreinWashingtonbyJohnWilkesBooth,anactor,whosomehowthoughthewashelpingtheSouth.Theoppositewastheresult,forwithLincoln'sdeath,thepossibilityofpeacewithmagnanimitydied.
TheodoreRoosevelt(26th)
WiththeassassinationofPresidentMcKinley,TheodoreRoosevelt,notquite43,becametheyoungestPresidentintheNation'shistory.HebroughtnewexcitementandpowertothePresidency,ashevigorouslyledCongressandtheAmericanpublictowardprogressivereformsandastrongforeignpolicy.
HetooktheviewthatthePresidentasa"stewardofthepeople"shouldtakewhateveractionnecessaryforthepublicgoodunlessexpresslyforbiddenbylawortheConstitution."Ididnotusurppower,"hewrote,"butIdidgreatlybroadentheuseofexecutivepower."
Roosevelt'syouthdifferedsharplyfromthatofthelogcabinPresidents.HewasborninNewYorkCityin1858intoawealthyfamily,buthetoostruggled--againstillhealth--andinhistriumphbecameanadvocateofthestrenuouslife.
In1884hisfirstwife,AliceLeeRoosevelt,andhismotherdiedonthesameday.RooseveltspentmuchofthenexttwoyearsonhisranchintheBadlandsofDakotaTerritory.Therehemasteredhissorrowashelivedinthesaddle,drivingcattle,huntingbiggame--heevencapturedanoutlaw.OnavisittoLondon,hemarriedEdithCarowinDecember1886.
DuringtheSpanish-AmericanWar,RooseveltwaslieutenantcoloneloftheRoughRiderRegiment,whichheledonachargeatthebattleofSanJuan.Hewasoneofthemostconspicuousheroesofthewar.
BossTomPlatt,needingaherotodrawattentionawayfromscandalsinNewYorkState,acceptedRooseveltastheRepublicancandidateforGovernorin1898.Rooseveltwonandservedwithdistinction.
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Twenty-SixthPresident1901-1909
Born:October27,1858inNewYork,NewYork
Died:January6,1919inOysterBay,NewYork
AsPresident,RooseveltheldtheidealthattheGovernment
shouldbethegreatarbiteroftheconflictingeconomicforcesintheNation,especiallybetweencapitalandlabor,guaranteeingjusticetoeachanddispensingfavorstonone.
Rooseveltemergedspectacularlyasa"trustbuster"byforcingthedissolutionofagreatrailroadcombinationintheNorthwest.OtherantitrustsuitsundertheShermanActfollowed.
RooseveltsteeredtheUnitedStatesmoreactivelyintoworldpolitics.Helikedtoquoteafavoriteproverb,"Speaksoftlyandcarryabigstick...."
AwareofthestrategicneedforashortcutbetweentheAtlanticandPacific,RooseveltensuredtheconstructionofthePanamaCanal.HiscorollarytotheMonroeDoctrinepreventedtheestablishmentofforeignbasesintheCaribbeanandarrogatedthesolerightofinterventioninLatinAmericatotheUnitedStates.
HewontheNobelPeacePrizeformediatingtheRusso-JapaneseWar,reachedaGentleman'sAgreementonimmigrationwithJapan,andsenttheGreatWhiteFleetonagoodwilltouroftheworld.
SomeofTheodoreRoosevelt'smosteffectiveachievementswereinconservation.HeaddedenormouslytothenationalforestsintheWest,reservedlandsforpublicuse,andfosteredgreatirrigationprojects.
Hecrusadedendlesslyonmattersbigandsmall,excitingaudienceswithhishigh-pitchedvoice,juttingjaw,andpoundingfist."Thelifeofstrenuousendeavor"wasamustforthosearoundhim,asherompedwithhisfiveyoungerchildrenandledambassadorsonhikesthroughRockCreekParkinWashington,D.C.
LeavingthePresidencyin1909,RooseveltwentonanAfricansafari,thenjumpedbackintopolitics.In1912heranforPresidentonaProgressiveticket.Toreportersheonceremarkedthathefeltasfitasabullmoose,thenameofhisnewparty.
WhilecampaigninginMilwaukee,hewasshotinthechestbyafanatic.Rooseveltsoonrecovered,buthiswordsatthattimewouldhavebeenapplicableatthetimeofhisdeathin1919:"NomanhashadahappierlifethanIhaveled;ahappierlifeineveryway."
FranklinD.Roosevelt(32th)
AssumingthePresidencyatthedepthoftheGreatDepression,FranklinD.RoosevelthelpedtheAmericanpeopleregainfaithinthemselves.Hebroughthopeashepromisedprompt,vigorousaction,andassertedinhisInauguralAddress,"theonlythingwehavetofearisfearitself."
Bornin1882atHydePark,NewYork--nowanationalhistoricsite--heattendedHarvardUniversityandColumbiaLawSchool.OnSt.Patrick'sDay,1905,hemarriedEleanorRoosevelt.
Followingtheexampleofhisfifthcousin,PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,whomhegreatlyadmired,FranklinD.Rooseveltenteredpublicservicethroughpolitics,butasaDemocrat.HewonelectiontotheNewYorkSenatein1910.PresidentWilsonappointedhimAssistantSecretaryoftheNavy,andhewastheDemocraticnomineeforVicePresidentin1920.
Inthesummerof1921,whenhewas39,disasterhit-hewasstrickenwithpoliomyelitis.Demonstratingindomitablecourage,hefoughttoregaintheuseofhislegs,particularlythroughswimming.Atthe1924DemocraticConventionhedramaticallyappearedoncrutchestonominateAlfredE.Smithas"theHappyWarrior."In1928RooseveltbecameGovernorofNewYork.
HewaselectedPresidentinNovember1932,tothefirstoffourterms.ByMarchtherewere13,000,000unemployed,andalmosteverybankwasclosed.Inhisfirst"hundreddays,"heproposed,andCongressenacted,asweepingprogramtobringrecoverytobusinessandagriculture,relieftotheunemployedandtothoseindangeroflosingfarmsandhomes,andreform,especiallythroughtheestablishmentoftheTennesseeValleyAuthority.
By1935theNationhadachievedsomemeasureofrecovery,butbusinessmenandbankerswereturningmoreandmoreagainstRoosevelt'sNewDealprogram.Theyfearedhisexperiments,wereappalledbecausehehadtakentheNationoffthegoldstandardandalloweddeficitsinthebudget,anddislikedtheconcessionstolabor.Rooseveltrespondedwithanewprogramofreform:SocialSecurity,heaviertaxesonthewealthy,new
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Thirty-SecondPresident1933-1945
Born:January30,1882inHydePark,NewYork
Died:April12,1945inWarmSprings,Georgia
MarriedtoAnnaEleanorRoosevelt
controlsoverbanksandpublicutilities,andanenormousworkreliefprogramfortheunemployed.
In1936hewasre-electedbyatop-heavymargin.Feelinghewasarmedwithapopularmandate,hesoughtlegislationtoenlargetheSupremeCourt,whichhadbeeninvalidatingkeyNewDealmeasures.RooseveltlosttheSupremeCourtbattle,butarevolutioninconstitutionallawtookplace.ThereaftertheGovernmentcouldlegallyregulatetheeconomy.
RoosevelthadpledgedtheUnitedStatestothe"goodneighbor"policy,transformingtheMonroeDoctrinefromaunilateralAmericanmanifestointoarrangementsformutualactionagains
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