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PoweringtheIndustrialInBritainoneofthemostdramaticchangesoftheIndustrialRevolutionwastheharnessingofpower.UntilthereignofGeorgeⅢ(1760-1820),availablesourcesofpowerforworkandtravelhadnotincreasedsincetheMiddleAges.Therewerethreesourcesofpower:animalorhumanmuscles;thewind,operatingonsailorwindmill;andrunningwater.Onlythelastofthesewassuitedatalltothecontinuousoperatingofmachines,andalthoughwaterpoweraboundedinLancashireandScotlandandrangrainmillsaswellastextilemills,ithadonegreatdisadvantage:streamsflowedwherenatureintendedthemto,andwater-drivenfactorieshadtobelocatedontheirbankswhetherornotthelocationwasdesirableforotherreasons.Furthermore,eventhemostreliablewaterpowervariedwiththeseasonsanddisappearedinadrought.Thenewageofmachinery,inshort,couldnothavebeenbornwithoutanewsourceofbothmovableandconstantpower.Thesourcehadlongbeenknownbutnotexploited.Earlyintheeighteenthcentury,apumphadcomeintouseinwhichexpandingsteamraisedapistoninacylinder,andatmosphericpressurebroughtitdownagainwhenthesteamcondensedinsidethecylindertoformavacuum.This“atmosphericengine,”inventedbyThomasSaveryandvastlyimprovedbyhispartner,ThomasNewcomen,embodiedrevolutionaryprinciples,butitwassoslowandwastefuloffuelthatitcouldnotbeemployedoutsidethecoalminesforwhichithadbeendesigned.Inthe1760s,JamesWattperfectedaseparatecondenserforthesteam,sothatthecylinderdidnothaveWatt'ssteamenginesoonshowedwhatitcoulddo.Itliberatedindustryfromdependenceonrunningwater.Theengineeliminatedwaterintheminesbydrivingefficientpumps,whichmadepossibledeeperanddeepermining.ThereadyavailabilityofcoalinspiredWilliamMurdochduringthe1790stodevelopthefirstnewformofnighttimeilluminationtobediscoveredinamillenniumandahalf.Coalgasrivaledsmokyoillampsandflickeringcandles,andearlyinthenewcentury,well-to-doLondonersgrewaccustomedtogaslithousesandevenstreets.Ironmanufacturers,whichhadstarvedforfuelwhiledependingoncharcoal,alsobenefitedfromever-increasingsuppliesofcoal:blastfurnaceswithsteam-poweredbellowsturnedoutmoreironandsteelforthenewmachinery.SteambecamethemotiveforceoftheIndustrialRevolutionascoalandironoreweretherawmaterials.By1800morethanathousandsteamengineswereinuseintheBritishIsles,andBritainretainedavirtualmonopolyonsteamengineproductionuntilthe1830s.Steampowerdidnotmerelyspincottonandrolliron;earlyinthenewcentury,italsomultipliedtentimesovertheamountofpaperthatasingleworkercouldproduceinaday.Atthesametime,operatorsofthefirstprintingpressesrunbysteamratherthanbyhandfounditpossibletoproduceathousandpagesinanhourratherthanthirty.Steamalsopromisedtoeliminateatransportationproblemnotfullysolvedbyeithercanalboatsorturnpikes.Boatscouldcarryheavyweights,butcanalscouldnotcrosshillyterrain;turnpikescouldcrossthehills,buttheroadbedscouldnotstandupundergreatweights.Theseproblemsneededstillanothersolution,andtheingredientsforitlaycloseathand.Insomeindustrialregions,heavilyladenwagons,withflangedwheels,werebeinghauledbyhorsesalongmetalrails;andthestationarysteamenginewaspuffinginthefactoryandmine.Anothergenerationpassedbeforeinventorssucceededincombiningtheseingredients,byputtingtheengineonwheelsandthewheelsontherails,soastoprovideamachinetotaketheplaceofthehorse.Thustherailroadagesprangfromwhathadalreadyhappenedintheeighteenthcentury.

在英國，工業(yè)革命帶來的最大的變化之一就是動力的運用。從中世紀到喬治三世動物或人力；風力，用于航行或者風車；流水產(chǎn)生的動力。其中只有水力可以用于支持持續(xù)運轉(zhuǎn)的機器，盡管在當時的蘭開夏和蘇格蘭地區(qū)水力資源極其豐富，被用于谷物作坊和紡織廠，但這種動力存在一個極大的缺陷：水的流向是由自然因素決定的，因此，不論適不適合工廠選址，利用水利生產(chǎn)的工廠都必須建造在能夠提供水資源動力的岸邊。再者，即便是最可靠的水資源也會受到季節(jié)變化和干旱的影響。總之，沒有可持續(xù)提供動力并且可移動的能源就沒有新機械化時代1930就能完成手動印刷機30小時完成的工作量。蒸汽動力還實現(xiàn)了運河及收費公路WilliamIn1769inalittletowninOxfordshire,England,achildwiththeveryordinarynameofWilliamSmithwasbornintothepoorfamilyofavillageblacksmith.Hereceivedrudimentaryvillageschooling,butmostlyheroamedhisuncle'sfarmcollectingthefossilsthatweresoabundantintherocksoftheCotswoldhills.Whenhegrewolder,WilliamSmithtaughthimselfsurveyingfrombooksheboughtwithhissmallsavings,andattheageofeighteenhewasapprenticedtoasurveyorofthelocalparish.Hethenproceededtoteachhimselfgeology,andwhenhewastwenty-four,hewenttoworkforthecompanythatwasexcavatingtheSomersetCoalCanalinthesouthofThiswasbeforethesteamlocomotive,andcanalbuildingwasatitsheight.Thecompaniesbuildingthecanalstotransportcoalneededsurveyorstohelpthemfindthecoaldepositsworthminingaswellastodeterminethebestcoursesforthecanals.ThisjobgaveSmithanopportunitytostudythefreshrockoutcropscreatedbythenewlydugcanal.HelaterworkedonsimilarjobsacrossthelengthandbreadthofEngland,allthewhilestudyingthenewlyrevealedstrataandcollectingallthefossilshecouldfind.Smithusedmailcoachestotravelasmuchas10,000milesperyear.In1815hepublishedthefirstmoderngeologicalmap,“AMapoftheStrataofEnglandandWaleswithaPartofScotland,”amapsometiculouslyresearchedthatitcanstillbeusedtoday.In1831whenSmithwasfinallyrecognizedbytheGeologicalSocietyofLondonasthe“fatherofEnglishgeology,”itwasnotonlyforhismapsbutalsoforsomethingevenmoreimportant.Eversincepeoplehadbeguntocatalogthestratainparticularoutcrops,therehadbeenthehopethatthesecouldsomehowbeusedtocalculategeologicaltime.Butasmoreandmoreaccumulationsofstratawerecatalogedinmoreandmoreplaces,itbecameclearthatthesequencesofrockssometimesdifferedfromregiontoregionandthatnorocktypewasevergoingtobecomeareliabletimemarkerthroughouttheworld.Evenwithouttheproblemofregionaldifferences,rockspresentadifficultyasuniquetimemarkers.Quartzisquartz—asiliconionsurroundedbyfouroxygenions—there’snodifferenceatallbetweentwo-million-year-oldPleistocenequartzandCambrianquartzcreatedover500millionyearsago.AshecollectedfossilsfromstratathroughoutEngland,Smithbegantoseethatthefossilstoldadifferentstoryfromtherocks.Particularlyintheyoungerstrata,therockswereoftensosimilarthathehadtroubledistinguishingthestrata,butheneverhadtroubletellingthefossilsapart.Whilerockbetweentwoconsistentstratamightinoneplacebeshaleandinanothersandstone,thefossilsinthatshaleorsandstonewerealwaysthesame.Somefossilsenduredthroughsomanymillionsofyearsthattheyappearinmanystrata,butothersoccuronlyinafewstrata,andafewspecieshadtheirbirthsandextinctionswithinoneparticularstratum.FossilsarethusidentifyingmarkersforparticularperiodsinEarth'shistory.NotonlycouldSmithidentifyrockstratabythefossilstheycontained,hecouldalsoseeapatternemerging:certainfossilsalwaysappearinmoreancientsediments,whileothersbegintobeseenasthestratabecomemorerecent.Byfollowingthefossils,SmithwasabletoputallthestrataofEngland'searthintorelativetemporalsequence.Aboutthesametime,GeorgesCuviermadethesamediscoverywhilestudyingtherocksaroundParis.Soonitwasrealizedthatthisprincipleoffaunal(animal)successionwasvalidnotonlyinEnglandorFrancebutvirtuallyeverywhere.Itwasactuallyaprincipleoffloralsuccessionaswell,becauseplantsshowedthesametransformationthroughtimeasdidfauna.LimestonemaybefoundintheCambrianor—300millionyearslater—intheJurassicstrata,butatrilobite—theubiquitousmarinearthropodthathaditsbirthintheCambrian—willneverbefoundinJurassicstrata,noradinosaurintheCambrian.

1769年英國牛津郡的一個小鎮(zhèn)上，一個小男孩出生在村里一戶窮鐵匠家，他很常見的。長大后，他開始用微薄的積蓄買書自學測量，18歲的時，史密斯成為了當?shù)亟虆^(qū)測量員的助理。后來，他又自學了地質(zhì)學，24歲的時，他開始為挖SomersetCoal運河那家公司工作。10000英里。1815年，他繪制了第一張現(xiàn)代到了1831年，史密斯最終被倫敦地質(zhì)學會認可，并賦予他“英國地質(zhì)學之父”的，Whatdoyourememberaboutyourlifebeforeyouwerethree?Fewpeoplecanrememberanythingthathappenedtothemintheirearlyyears.Adults'memoriesofthenextfewyearsalsotendtobescanty.Mostpeoplerememberonlyafewevents—usuallyonesthatweremeaningfulanddistinctive,suchasbeinghospitalizedorasibling’sbirth.Howmightthisinabilitytorecallearlyexperiencesbeexplained?Thesheerpassageoftimedoesnotaccountforit;adultshaveexcellentrecognitionofpicturesofpeoplewhoattendedhighschoolwiththem35yearsearlier.Anotherseeminglyplausibleexplanation—thatinfantsdonotformenduringmemoriesatthispointindevelopment—alsoisincorrect.Childrentwoandahalftothreeyearsoldrememberexperiencesthatoccurredintheirfirstyear,andelevenmontholdsremembersomeeventsayearlater.Nordoesthehypothesisthatinfantileamnesiareflectsrepression—orholdingback—ofsexuallychargedepisodesexplainthephenomenon.Whilesuchrepressionmayoccur,peoplecannotrememberordinaryeventsfromtheinfantandtoddlerperiodseither.Threeotherexplanationsseemmorepromising.Oneinvolvesphysiologicalchangesrelevanttomemory.Maturationofthefrontallobesofthebraincontinuesthroughoutearlychildhood,andthispartofthebrainmaybecriticalforrememberingparticularepisodesinwaysthatcanberetrievedlater.Demonstrationsofinfants’andtoddlers'long-termmemoryhaveinvolvedtheirrepeatingmotoractivitiesthattheyhadseenordoneearlier,suchasreachinginthedarkforobjects,puttingabottleinadoll’smouth,orpullingaparttwopiecesofatoy.Thebrain’slevelofphysiologicalmaturationmaysupportthesetypesofmemories,butnotonesrequiringexplicitverbaldescriptions.Asecondexplanationinvolvestheinfluenceofthesocialworldonchildren’slanguageuse.Hearingandtellingstoriesabouteventsmayhelpchildrenstoreinformationinwaysthatwillendureintolaterchildhoodandadulthood.Throughhearingstorieswithaclearbeginning,middle,andendingchildrenmaylearntoextractthegistofeventsinwaysthattheywillbeabletodescribemanyyearslater.Consistentwiththisview,parentsandchildrenincreasinglyengageindiscussionsofpasteventswhenchildrenareaboutthreeyearsold.However,hearingsuchstoriesisnotsufficientforyoungerchildrentoformenduringmemories.Tellingsuchstoriestotwoyearoldsdoesnotseemtoproducelong-lastingverbalizablememories.Athirdlikelyexplanationforinfantileamnesiainvolvesincompatibilitiesbetweenthewaysinwhichinfantsencodeinformationandthewaysinwhicholderchildrenandadultsretrieveit.Whetherpeoplecanrememberaneventdependscriticallyonthefitbetweenthewayinwhichtheyearlierencodedtheinformationandthewayinwhichtheylaterattempttoretrieveit.Thebetterablethepersonistoreconstructtheperspectivefromwhichthematerialwasencoded,themorelikelythatrecallwillbesuccessful.Thisviewissupportedbyavarietyoffactorsthatcancreatemismatchesbetweenveryyoungchildren'sencodingandolderchildren'sandadults'retrievalefforts.Theworldlooksverydifferenttoapersonwhoseheadisonlytwoorthreefeetabovethegroundthanto