語言學(xué)講義-考研-6-Psycholinguistics

考研講義6

PsycholinguisticsTeachingobjectives:

thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowsomebasictheoriesinpsycholinguisticsandcognitivelinguistics.TeachingFocus:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction,categorizationandmetaphorTeachingMethodsandStrategies:

teacherpresentationandclassdiscussionChapter6LanguageandCognition

TeachingProcedures1.Cognition2.Psycholinguistics2.1Languageacquisition2.2Languagecomprehension2.3Languageproduction3.CognitiveLinguistics3.1Categorization3.2Metaphor3.3Metonymy4.Task1.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessingMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Theformalapproach（形式法）:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach（心理學(xué)方法）:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach（認(rèn)知法）:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.2.PsycholinguisticsPsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Psychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition,languageproduction&comprehension.Languageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch2.1LanguageAcquisition---Howlanguageisrepresentedinthemindandhowlanguageisacquired?(1)Holophrasticstage（單詞句階段）Language’ssoundpatternsPhoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.(2)Two-wordstage:around18mChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychairThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNamingChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdon’twanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetableInformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest(3)Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.(4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Givedoggiepaper.

Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguageareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.2.2Languagecomprehension---Howdopeopleusetheirknowledgeoflanguage,andhowdotheyunderstandwhattheyhearorread?

Mentallexicon:informationaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglanguage.Itincludeslinguisticknowledge:meaning,spelling,pronunciation,collocationoftheword.non-linguisticknowledge:encyclopedicknowledge,personalexperience,etc.Wordretrievalmodel(1)Wordrecognition1）Cohortmodel（群集模式）

2）

Interactivemodel（交互模式）3）

Racemodel（競爭模式）

1)Cohorttheory（集群理論）Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978,1980,1981,1990)Ithypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.eg.,Paulgotajobattheca-…Wordcandidates:candy,cash,candle,cashier,camp…2)Interactivemodel（交互模式）Theoreticalbasis:connectionism聯(lián)結(jié)主義理論Interactiveactivation:

proposedbyRumelhart&

McClelland（1981）“交互作用模型”

這個(gè)模型假設(shè)語言的加工過程不僅包含自下而上的加工過程(bottom-upprocess)，也包含自上而下（top-downprocess）的過程。而且這兩種過程可以在同一時(shí)間互相作用。eg:a)“小明和小張?jiān)谇械案狻?/p>

b)word-superiorityeffect“詞優(yōu)效應(yīng)”

2)Interactivemodel（交互理論）:Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsub-lexicalunits.Incertaincases,listeners’knowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinueto“hear”phonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.3)Racemodel:Pre-lexicalroute:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignalLexicalroute:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessedWhenword-levelinformationappearstoaffectalower-levelprocess,itisassumedthatthelexicalroutewontherace.Factorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect（頻率效應(yīng)）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.Recencyeffects（近期效應(yīng)）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.Context:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.Lexicalambiguity(詞匯歧義)Allthemeaningsrelatedtothewordareaccessed獲取.Onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.Areyouengaged?Myfrienddrovemetothebank.Theypassedtheportatmidnight.Pleasegivemeacamel.上課做手術(shù)Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPopham,youngestdaughterof...Theclerk:Thatisn’twhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw:AugustusDoesHisBit)(2)ComprehensionofsentencesSerialmodels(串行模式):

Processesthatoccuroneatatime.Thesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowsconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammar.Describehowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.Parallelmodels(并行模式):

Whentwoormoreprocessestakeplaceatthesametime.Theyemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Describehowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.Comprehensionofwrittenandspokenlanguagecanbedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents

(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.

Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpretingsentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.Structuralfactorsincomprehension

理解中的結(jié)構(gòu)性因素Minimalattachment(最小接觸理論):

the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.人們解釋句子結(jié)構(gòu)時(shí)，一開始構(gòu)建的是最簡（或者說最小復(fù)雜性）句法結(jié)構(gòu)，這種觀點(diǎn)叫做最少接觸理論。Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.Gardenpathsentences花園小徑句Oneinterestingphenomenonconcerningcertainambiguoussentencesiscalledthe“gardenpath”.

Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.Gardenpathsentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Sometimespeopleneverfigureitout.Theyhavebeen“l(fā)edupthegardenpath”,fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Reducedrelativeclausesquitefrequentlycausethisfeelingofhavingbeengarden-pathed.

花園小徑句就是那些實(shí)際解釋不同于我們一開始所想結(jié)構(gòu)的句子。如果證明開始的選擇是錯(cuò)誤的，就要花相當(dāng)長的一段時(shí)間來找出另外一種結(jié)構(gòu)。有時(shí)甚至永遠(yuǎn)也找不出來，他們被“引到花園小徑中去了，被”騙“去思索句子的另外一種結(jié)構(gòu)，而非其表面上顯示的。降級關(guān)系從句經(jīng)常使人有這種走入花園小徑的感覺。Lexicalfactorsincomprehension

Thehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.Thesalesmanglancedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withrippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withrippedjeans.SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.Maylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.Thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.IknowSimonbetterthanyou.Tellmeifyouhavetime.Mybrotherwasn’treadingallthetime.ThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.Thescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(3)ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel共振模式:

informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Discourseinterpretation

SchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema(圖式):apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.[RESTAURANT]Schema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable…Johnwentintoarestaurant.Heaskedthewaitressforcoqauvin.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)Apartmentforrent.$500.Istoppedtogetsomegroceriesbutthereweren'tanybasketsleftsobythetimeIarrivedatthecheck-outcounterImusthavelookedlikeajugglerhavingabadday.A:Wouldyoulikeacoffee? B:Yes,please. … B:Noandno. A:Right.一天，我在看中央三臺(tái)的中國音樂電視。我正看得津津有味的時(shí)候，老媽回來了說：“這是誰??？”當(dāng)時(shí)正是龍寬九段在唱歌。我就說：“龍寬九段。”這時(shí)，老媽一本正經(jīng)的問：“九段？下圍棋的??？她還能唱歌??？”Pragmaticambiguity(語用歧義)Thereisaflyinmysoup.TodayisSunday.“Doyouenjoysittingbesideme?”sheaskedcoldly.“Oh,no,”Isaid.“Well,youarenotwantedhere.” (W.E.B.DuBois,“OnBeingCrazy”)2.3Languageproduction---Howdotheyproducemessagethatotherscanunderstandinturn?TwoformsoflanguageproductionSpeechproductionWriting2.3.1Speechproduction(1)AccesstowordsConceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords(2)GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay–aglobalplanisneededWordretrieval詞匯檢索andapplicationofsyntacticknowledge2processesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunitSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisprocess.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.2.3.2Writtenlanguageproduction3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitionisthewaywethink.Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.ThreemainapproachesTheExperientialView經(jīng)驗(yàn)觀TheProminenceView凸顯觀TheAttentionalView注意觀ExperientialviewCar:

abox-likeshape,wheels,doors,windows

comfort,speed,mobility,independence,socialstatusProminenceviewTheselectionandarrangementoftheinformationthatisexpressed.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Thetreeishitbythecar.AttentionalviewWhatweactuallyexpressreflectswhichpartsofaneventattractourattention.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Howthecarstartedtoswerve;Howitskiddedacrosstheroad;Howitrumbledontotheverge.3.1Construal(識解)Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways1.Attention/salience(注意力／突顯)Weactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovealongtheroad.Sheranacrosstheroad.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.2.Judgment/Comparison(判斷和對比),Figure/Ground

（圖形和背景）Wecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.

Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.Figure-groundorganization

Thegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.Figure-groundreversalFigure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajector（射體）foramovingfigureandlandmark（路標(biāo)）

forthegroundofamovingfigure.There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground].Therearestillsomepeanuts[figure]inthebag[ground].Batman[figure]wasstandingontheroof[ground].Thecomputer[figure]underthetable[ground]ismine.Thespacecraft[figure]washoveringoverMetropolis[ground].Tarzan[trajector]jumpedintotheriver[landmark].Spiderman[trajector]climbedupthewall[landmark].Thebird[trajector]wingeditswayoutthewindow[landmark].We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark].I[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark].3.Perspective視角

generallydependsontwothings.wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewe'reviewing.howthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness（位置）.Themanisinfrontofthetree.Thetreeisbehindtheman.Thetreeisinfrontoftheman.Themanisbehindthetree.3.2Categorization（范疇化）Theprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.AmajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledgeAllowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastonesThreelevels:basiclevel（基本層次）superordinatelevel（上義層次）subordinatelevel（下義層次）.原型理論P(yáng)rototypes：thebestexamplesofacategory作用原形范疇的特點(diǎn)：成員之間享有家族相似性成員之間的地位不是平等的，具有中心成員和邊緣成員之分行為&事件范疇含義也符合原型理論例子：lie&whitelie也包含三個(gè)層次例子：move-walk-limp，hobble，amble，wander例子：meal-breakfast-fastbreakfast3.3ImageSchema（意象圖式）Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.意象圖式是在對事物之間基本關(guān)系的認(rèn)知的基礎(chǔ)上所構(gòu)成的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.世界認(rèn)知的兩個(gè)層面事物認(rèn)識事物范疇其關(guān)系認(rèn)識其關(guān)系意象圖式（1）Center-peripheryschema

(中心－邊緣圖式)Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples(English):ThestructureofanappleAnindividual’sperceptualsphereAnindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality

Center-peripheryschema---來自人對人體生理的感受。它的生理和物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)在于人體具有中心（軀體和內(nèi)臟器官）和邊緣（手指、腳趾、頭發(fā)等）；同樣，樹木和植物有樹干、樹枝、樹葉。中心是重要的；邊緣是不重要的，邊緣依賴中心而存在。這些體驗(yàn)和感受被投射到其他經(jīng)驗(yàn)域，形成了中心邊緣圖示隱喻。eg:a.Beijingisthepoliticalcenterofourcountry.b.There’snoneedtosplithairsovertheexactcostofthehouse.c.Hecasuallyleafedthroughthebook.

（2）Containmentschema

（容器圖式）Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundaryenclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorBasiclogic:ForallA,X,eitherIN(X,A)ornot.ForallA,B,X,ifCONTAINER(A)andCONTAINER(B)andIN(A,B)andIN(X,A),thenIN(X,B).

Theshipiscomingintoview.She’sdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.Containmentschema（容器圖式）eg:a.Itakeoutabottleofmilkfromtherefrigerator.b.Ipourthemilkoutofthebottle.c.Shewalkedintotheroom.以上例句都與“容器”有關(guān)。我把錢裝進(jìn)口袋這個(gè)“容器”，走出銀行這個(gè)“容器”，再進(jìn)入另一個(gè)“容器”轎車。經(jīng)過無數(shù)次“容器”的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，我們頭腦中就會(huì)形成一個(gè)“容器”的意象圖式。（3）Cycleschema

（循環(huán)圖式）Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktrackingAreturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline.Examples(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuildupandrelease（4）End-of-pathschema

Animageschemainwhichalocationisunderstoodastheterminationofaprescribedpath.Example(English):Inthefollowingsentence,itisunderstoodthatonemusttraversethehillbeforereachingSam’shome,whichisattheendofthepath:Samlivesoverthehill.

想象移動(dòng)物體走過的路徑，之后注意力集中在物體停止的地方。例如：觀察足球運(yùn)動(dòng)員踢入球門內(nèi)，并停在那里。（5）Forceschema

（力圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausationExamples(English):Physical:Wind,GravityStructuralelements:force,path,entity,etc.Interaction,directionality,causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemovalofrestraint（6）Linkschema（連接圖式）Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.

EntityA EntityBExamples(English):Achildholdinghermother’shandSomeonepluggingalampintothewallAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”

連接圖式形成的生物和物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)是人的第一連接物是臍帶。臍帶是兩個(gè)生命體的連接，因此，人們把社交和人際關(guān)系看成是一種連接關(guān)系，這種連接關(guān)系維系了個(gè)體與社會(huì)、社會(huì)與社會(huì)、個(gè)體與個(gè)體的關(guān)系。這種關(guān)系也是建構(gòu)隱喻的源泉。eg:a.Marriageisachainb.Thepassedlawwillbreakthesocialties.c.Slaveryisfettersandmanacles.

（7）

Part-wholeschema

（部分整體圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples(English):Physical:ThebodyanditspartsMetaphorical:Thefamily; ThecastestructureofIndiaPart-wholeschema

（部分整體圖式）

部分-整體圖式形成的生理和物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)是人本身以及其他物體是由部分組成的整體。在此圖示中，只有部分存在于同一結(jié)構(gòu)中才構(gòu)成整體。人的經(jīng)驗(yàn)將家庭及其他社會(huì)團(tuán)體視為由部分組成的整體，離婚被視為“解體”（splittingup）。在印度，社會(huì)被看做由等級組成的整體---最高級為“首”（head），最低級為“腳”（feet），等級制度參照人體結(jié)構(gòu)來理解和表達(dá)。eg:a.WhotoldyouthatMaryandIhadsplitup?b.Heistheheadofourdepartment.（8）

Pathschema（路徑圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.Examples(English):Physical:Paths;TrajectoriesMetaphorical:Thepurpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,asexpressedinthefollowingsentences:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.She'sjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.（9）

Scaleschema

（等級圖式）Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-endedprogressionofamountApositionintheprogressionofamountOneormorenormsofamountAcalibrationofamount

Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand（10）Verticalityschema（上下圖式）Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatubVerticalityschema（上下圖式）

研究表明，“上-下（up-down）”概念在最初形成階段都是純空間概念。然而，經(jīng)過人類多年的使用和發(fā)展，“上-下（up-down）”概念從原有的空間意義中拓展出豐富的隱喻意義。

“上-下（up-down）”圖式的形成有其生理和物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)，人是直立行走的動(dòng)物，頭在上，腳在下；人和多數(shù)哺乳動(dòng)物睡覺時(shí)躺下，醒后站立起來，正常人以站姿和坐姿完成日常生活的絕大部分內(nèi)容；人死后均倒下。由于有這樣的體驗(yàn)和感受，人類把這種體驗(yàn)和感受投射到其他目標(biāo)域，形成“上-下（up-down）”圖式隱喻，因此人類得出了Goodisup,badisdown.Happyisup,sadisdown.這一隱喻圖式。eg:a.I’mfeelinguptoday.b.Hecamedownwithflu.c.如果他當(dāng)上書記，很可能是造福百姓的好書記。3.4Metaphor（隱喻）GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.ConceptualMetaphorTheory

(概念隱喻理論)Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（從一個(gè)語域到另一個(gè)語域）,notfromawordtoanother.類型---常規(guī)隱喻含義：指隱喻意義已成為詞匯的部分含義，已收入辭典中，成為約定俗成的字面含義。類型實(shí)體隱喻ontologicalmetaphor結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻StructuralMetaphor

方位隱喻OrientationalMetaphor含義：人們將抽象的和模糊的思想，感情，心理活動(dòng)，事件，狀態(tài)等無形的概念看做是具體的，有形的實(shí)體，因而可以對其進(jìn)行談?wù)摚炕?，識別其特征及原因等。Targetdomain（目標(biāo)域）-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.Sourcedomain（源域）-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtargetOntologicalcorrespondence（本體對應(yīng)）Epistemiccorrespondence（認(rèn)知對應(yīng)）

Targetdomain SourcedomainRATIONALARGUMENTWAR

1）OntologicalMetaphor(實(shí)體隱喻)Theepistemiccorrespondence(認(rèn)知對應(yīng))Example:LIFEISAJOURNEYOntologicalcorrespondence（本體對應(yīng)）source:JOURNEYtarget:LIFESTARTINGPOINTBIRTHTRAVELERPERSONPATHAGINGDESTINATIONDEATHOBSTACLESPROBLEMSINLIFECROSSROADSCHOICESEpistemiccorrespondence

(認(rèn)知對應(yīng))TRAVELERLEAVESSTARTINGPOINTPERSONISBORNTRAVELERTRAVELSALONGPATHPERSONAGESTRAVELERFACESACROSSROADPERSONMUSTTAKEACHOICETRAVELERFACESANOBSTACLEPERSONHADPROBLEMSINLIFETRAVELERREACHESDESTINATIONPERSONDIES2）StructuralMetaphor

(結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻)含義：指以一種概念的結(jié)構(gòu)來構(gòu)造另一種概念，使兩種概念相疊加，使談?wù)撘环N概念的各方面的詞語用于談?wù)摿硪桓拍睢?/p>

Providesrichhighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomaintostructuretargetdomain.Thenatureofthemapping:

Themappinginvolvestwotypesofcorrespondencebetweentargetandsourcedomain,whicharebothgroundedinourexperiencesintheworld.Example:ARGUMENTISWAR:Yourclaimsareindefensible.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.Hiscriticismswererightontarget.Idemolishedhisargument.I’veneverwonanargumentwithhim.Youdisagree?OK,shoot!Ifyouusethatstrategy,he’llwipeyouout.Heshotdownallofmyarguments.3）OrientationalMetaphor

(方位隱喻)含義：指參照空間方位而組建的一系列隱喻概念。GivesaconceptaspatialorientationCharacterizedbyaco-occurrenceinourexperienceGroundedinanexperientialbasis,whichlinktogetherthetwopartsofthemetaphorThelinkverb“is”,partofthemetaphor,shouldbeseenasthelinkoftwodifferentco-occurringexperiences.Forexample,MOREISUPThestockpriceskeeprisingthesedays.Thenumberoferrshemadeisincrediblylow.科學(xué)技術(shù)使農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)逐年提高。

Thismetaphorisgroundedintheco-occurrenceoftwodifferentkindsofexperiences:addingmoreofasubstance,andperceivingthelevelofthesubstancerise.Examples:HAPPYISUP;SADISDOWNThatboostedmyspirits.I’mfeelingdown.I’mdepressed.CONSCIOUSISUP;UNCONSCIOUSISDOWNWakeup.Hefellasleep.He’sunderhypnosis.3.5Metonymy（換喻，轉(zhuǎn)喻）Itisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle（源域）,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目標(biāo)域）,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.Itismodeledasidealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs)byLakoff(1987),conceptualmappingsbyRadden&Kovecses(1999),domainhighlightingbyCroft(2002),combinationsofmappingsandhighlightingbyRuizdeMendoza(2000),scenariosbyPanther&Thornburg(1999)andmoregenerallyasreference-pointactivationbyLangacker(1999)andBarcelona(2000).Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:theworldof“concept”theworldof“form”theworldof“things”and“events”Theyroughlycorrespondtothethreeentitiesthatcomprisethewell-knownsemantictriangle.TheinterrelationsbetweenentitiesofthesameorfromdifferentontologicalrealmsleadtovariousICMsandpossibilitiesformetonymy.Thus,wehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:SignICMs,ReferenceICMsandConceptICMs.

Twogeneralconceptualconfigurations:wholeICManditspart(s)partsofanICM.(1)WholeICManditspart(s)(i)Thing-and-PartICM,whichmayleadtotwometonymicvariants:WHOLETHINGFORAPARTORTHETHING:Americafor“UnitedStates”PARTOFATHNGFORTHEWHOLETHING:Englandfor“GreatBritain”(ii)ScaleICM.Scalesareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalarunitsarepartsofthem.Typically,ascaleasawholeisusedforitsupperendandtheupperendofascaleisusedtostandforthescaleasawhole:WHOLESCALEFORUPPERENDOFTHESCALE:Henryisspeedingagainfor“Henryisgoingtoofast.”UPPERENDOFASCALEFORWHOLESCALE:Howoldareyou?for“whatisyourage?”(iii)ConstitutionICM.Itinvolvesmatter,materialorsubstanceswhichareseenasconstitutingathing.OBJECTFORMATERIALCONSTITUTINGTHEOBJECT:Ismellskunk.MATERIALCONSTITUTINGANOBJECTFORTHEOBJECT:woodfor“forest”

；我喜歡純棉。(iv)EventICM.Eventsmaybemetaphoricallyviewedasthingswhichmayhaveparts.WHOLEEVENTFORSUBEVENT:Billsmokedmarijuana.SUBEVENTFORWHOLEEVENT:MaryspeaksSpanish.(v)Category-and-MemberICM.Acategoryanditsmembersstandinakindofrelation.CATEGORYFORAMEMBEROFTHECATEGORY:thepillfor“birthcontrolpill”MEMBEROF