第二章真核微生物的形態(tài),結(jié)構(gòu)和功能95

Chapter2Morphology，structureandphysiologicalfunctionofeukaryotesDefinition：eukaryoticcellsarecompartmentalizedbymembran-es.Thecellcontainsseveraldifferenttypesofmembranebou-ndorganelleinwhichdifferentbiochemicalandphysiologicalprocessescanoccurinaregulatedway.

Membranesalsotransportinformation，metabolicintermediatsandend-productsfromthesiteofbiosynthesistothesiteofuse.Eukaryotesisabiggroupoflivingorganismsmadeupofeukaryoticcells.withmembraneboundnucleusandseveralorganellessuchasmitochondrionetal.anddividedbymitosis.真核生物是一大類細胞核具有核膜，能進行有絲分裂，細胞質(zhì)中存在線粒體或同時存在葉綠體等多種細胞器的生物.

eukaryoticmicro-organismsisagroupofMicroorganismsthatmadeupofeukaryoticcellsincludeFungi、microalgae（）、andprotozoa真核細胞真核生物

真核微生物peroxisomesmitochondrioncytosolchloroplastSmoothendoplasmicreticulumStructureofatypicalplantcellCytosol細胞液PlasmamembraneSecretoryvesiclesStructureofatypicalanimalcellmembraneCellwall

mitochondrionVesicals

(泡囊)

Dictyosomes(分散高爾基體)HyphalstructuresEndoplasmicreticlumribosomesmembranevacuoleCellwallmitochondrionNucleusEndoplasmicreticulumYeaststructuresYeaststructures

真核微生物主要包括菌物界(Mycetalia或廣義的“Fungi”)中的真菌(Eumycota或狹義的“Fungi”，即TrueFungi)、粘菌(Myxomycota或Fungi—likeProtozoa)、假菌(Chromista或Pseudofungi)，植物界(Plantae)中的顯微藻類(Algae)和動物界(Animalia)中的原生動物(Protozoa)

Majorgroupsofeukaryoticmicroorganisms

真核微生物的主要類群

植物界（plantae）：顯微藻類algae

動物界（animalia）：原生動物protozoa真核微生物

黏菌myxomycota假菌pseudofungi菌物界（mycetalia）單細胞真菌unicellularfungi真菌eumycota絲狀真菌filamentous大型子實體蕈菌mushroomMajorgroupsofeukaryoticmicroorganismsEukaryoticmicroorganisms“菌物界’’這個名詞是我國學(xué)者裘維蕃等于1990年提出的，并已·得到學(xué)術(shù)界的一定支持，這是指與動物界、植物界相并列的一大群無葉綠素、依靠細胞表面吸收有機養(yǎng)料、細胞壁一般含有幾丁質(zhì)的真核微生物。一般包括真菌、粘菌和假菌(卵菌等)3類。真菌是最重要的真核微生物，故是本章的重點，它們的特點是：①無葉綠素，不能進行光合作用；②一般具有發(fā)達的菌絲體；③細胞壁多數(shù)含幾丁質(zhì)；④營養(yǎng)方式為異養(yǎng)吸收型；⑤以產(chǎn)生大量無性和(或)有性孢子的方式進行繁殖；⑥陸生性較強

Fungiarefilamentous,non-photosynthetic,eukaryoticmicroorganismsthathaveaheterotrophicnutrition.Theirbasiccellularunitisdescribedasahypha.Thisisatubularcellwhichissurroundedbyarigid,chitin-containingcellwall.Thehyphaextendsbytipgrowth,andmultipliesbybranching,creatingafinenetworkcalledamycelium.Hyphaecontainnuclei,mitochondria,ribosomes,Golgiandmembrane-boundvesicleswithinaplasma-membraneboundcytoplasm.Thesubcellularstructuresaresupportedandorganizedbymicrotubulesandendoplasmicreticulum.Thecytoplasmiccontentsofthehyphatendtobeconcentratedtowardsthegrowingtip.Olderpartsofthehyphaareheavilyvacuolatedandmaybeseparatedfromtheyoungerareasbycrosswallscalledseptae.Notallfungiaremulticellular,someareunicellularandaretermedyeasts.Thesegrowbybinaryfissionorbudding,creatingnewindividualsfromtheparentcell.Mould（Mold）

DefinitionMoldarefilamentous,nonphotosynthetic,eukaryoticmicroorganismsthathaveaheterotrophicnutrition（filamentousfungi）。

MorphologyandstructureHyphaandmycelium菌絲與菌絲體lowerfungi——non-septatemyceliumshigherfungi——septatemyceliumwithelaborate、perforateseptaThehyphaextendsbytipgrowth,andmultipliesbybranching,creatingafinenetworkcalledamycelium.

（pluralmycelia）Myceliacanbedividedintovegatativemyceliumandaerialmycelium（營養(yǎng)菌絲體和氣生菌絲體）Basicunit——hypha（pl。hyphae）Thisisatubularcellwhichissurroundedbyarigid,chitin-containingcellwall.Hyphaecontainnuclei,mitochondria,ribosomes,Golgiandmembrane-boundvesicleswithinaplasma-membraneboundcytoplasmmembraneCellwall

mitochondrionVesicalsDictyosomes(分散高爾基體)HyphalstructuresSpecializedmorphologyofvegetativemycelium

營養(yǎng)菌絲體的特化形態(tài)Rhizoid假根——Rhizopus

Stolon匍匐菌絲——Mucorales、Rhizopus

Haustorium吸器Adhesivecell附著胞Adhesivebranch附著枝Sclerotium菌核Rhizomorph，funiculus菌索

ringandnet菌環(huán)和菌網(wǎng)1)假根(rhizoid)是Rhizopus(根霉屬)等低等真菌匍匐菌絲與固體基質(zhì)接觸處分化出來的根狀結(jié)構(gòu)，具有固著和吸取養(yǎng)料等功能(2)匍匐菌絲(stolon)又稱匍匐枝。毛霉目(Mueorales)真菌在固體基質(zhì)上常形成與表面平行、具有延伸功能的菌絲，稱匍匐菌絲。最典型的可在Rhizopus中見：在固體基質(zhì)表面的營養(yǎng)菌絲分化為匍匐菌絲，在其上每隔一段距離可長出伸人基質(zhì)的假根

根霉的形態(tài)和構(gòu)造和伸向空間的孢囊梗，隨著匍匐菌絲的延伸，不斷形成新的假根和孢囊梗，這類真菌會隨基質(zhì)的存在而向四處快速蔓延，根本就不會形成像在其他真菌中常見的那樣有固定大小和形態(tài)的菌落。sporangium(3)吸器(haustorium)由幾類專性寄生的真菌如銹菌目(Uredinales)、霜霉目(Peronosporales)和白粉菌目(Erysiphales)等的一些種所產(chǎn)生。吸器是一種只在宿主細胞間隙間蔓延的營養(yǎng)菌絲上分化出來的短枝，它可侵入細胞內(nèi)形成指狀、球狀或絲狀的構(gòu)造，用以吸取宿主細胞內(nèi)的養(yǎng)料而不使其致死。(4)附著胞(adhesivecell)許多寄生于植物的真菌在其芽管或老菌絲頂端會發(fā)產(chǎn)膨大，分泌粘狀物，借以牢固地粘附在宿主的表面，此即附著胞。在其上再形成針狀感染菌絲，以侵入宿主的角質(zhì)表皮而吸取養(yǎng)料。

(5)附著枝(adhesivebranch)若干寄生真菌由菌絲細胞生出1—2個細胞的短枝，將菌絲附著于宿主體上，（6）菌核（sclerotium)是一種形狀、大小不一的休眠菌絲組織，在不良外界條件下：可保存數(shù)年生命力。菌核形狀有大有小，大的如茯苓(大如小孩頭)，小的如油菜菌核(形如鼠糞）。菌核的外層色深、堅硬、內(nèi)層疏松，大多呈白色。（7）菌索（）一般由傘菌等產(chǎn)生，為白色根狀菌絲組織，功能為促進菌體蔓延和抵御不良環(huán)境。通?？稍诟嗟臉淦は潞偷叵掳l(fā)現(xiàn)。

(8)菌環(huán)(loop)和菌網(wǎng)(net)捕蟲菌目(zoopasdes)和一些半知菌的菌絲常會分化成圈環(huán)或網(wǎng)狀的特化菌絲組織，用以捕捉線蟲或其他微小動物，然后進一步從這類環(huán)或網(wǎng)上生出菌絲侵入線蟲等體內(nèi)，吸收養(yǎng)料（9）子實體（fruitingbody，sporocarp，fructification）ColonialgrowthHyphaltipgrowthallowsfungitoextendintonewregionsfromapointsourceorinoculum(接種物).Olderpartsofthehyphaeareoftenemptiedofcontentsasthecytoplasmistakenforwardswiththegrowingtip.(老的菌絲通常缺乏內(nèi)含物，因為細胞質(zhì)流向生長點)Thiscreatestheradiatingcolonialpatternseenonagarplates,inringworminfectionsofskinandfairyringsingrasslawns.Onlyhyphaltipscontributetoextensiongrowth.Howeverolderhyphaecangrowaeriallyordifferentiatetoproducesporingstructures（只有菌絲頂端對延伸生長起作用，而老菌絲可以進行氣生生長或分化出產(chǎn)孢子的結(jié)構(gòu)）MyceliuminagarAgar

SurfacemyceliumKineticsofgrowth

Fungalgrowthinagivenmediumfollowsthegrowthphasesoflag,acceleration,exponential,linear,retardation,stationaryanddecline（延遲期、加速期、指數(shù)期、直線期、減速期、穩(wěn)定期、衰亡期）.Exponentialgrowthoccursonlyforabriefperiodashyphaebranchesinitiated,andthenthenewhyphaextendsatalinearrateintouncolonizedregionsofsubstrate.Lifecycles

Allfungiarecharacterizedbyhavingaperiodofvegetativegrowthwheretheirbiomassincreases.Thelengthoftimeandtheamountofbiomassneededbeforesporulationcanoccurvaries.Almostallfungireproducebytheproductionofspores,butafewhavelostallsporingstructuresandarereferredtoasmyceliasterilia(不育菌絲體).Differenttypesofsporeareproducedindifferentpartsofthelifecycle.ReproductioninfungiAllfungiundergoaperiodofvegetativegrowthwheretheirmyceliumexploitsasubstrate.Thisstageisfollowedbyasexualandsexualreproduction..

Therearetwoconflictingrequirementsfungihavefortheirspores.Sporesmustallowfungitospread,buttheymustalsoallowthemtosurviveadversecondi-tions.Theserequirementsaremetbydifferenttypesofspores.Small,lightsporesarecarriedfurthestfromparentmyceliuminairandthesearethedispersalspores（釋放型孢子）.Theyareusuallytheproductsofasexualsporulation,thesporangiosporesandtheconidiospores,andsospreadgeneticallyidenticalindividualsaswidelyaspossible.Geneticdiversityismaintainedbysexualreproduction,andthesporeproductsareoftenlargerestingspores（休眠孢子）thatwithstandadverseconditionsbutremainclosetotheirsiteofformation.Sporesthereforevarygreatlyissize,shapeandornamentation,andthisvariationreflectsspecializationofpurpose.Fungalspores：sporesallowfungitospread,tomaintaingeneticdiversityandtosurviveadverseconditionsReproductioninfungi

sporedischarge

：Sporesthathaveadispersalfunctioncanbereleasedfromtheirparentmyceliumbyactiveorpassivemechanisms.Asmanysporesarewinddispersed,theyareproducedindryfriablemasseswhicharepassivelydischargedbywind.Othersporesarepassivelydischargedbywaterdropletssplashingsporesawayfromparentmycelium.Sporesmaybedischargedfromparentmyceliumbypassiveoractivemeans.Passivemechanismsincludeusingwindandwaterasdispersants;activemechanismsuseexplosiveprinciples.Fungalsporedischarge

Sporesintheatmosphere（air-bornefungalspores）canbecarriedgreatdistances。Theirpresenceintheaircanhaveimpactonhumanhealthastheycancauseallergicrhinitus（hayfever）andasthma。Manyplantdiseasesthatcausegreateconomiclossesareairborne。canaffecthuman,animalandplanthealth.Theycancauseallergiesandspreadplantdisease.AirsporaFungireproducebytheformationofsexualorasexualspores

AsexualreproductionfissionArthrosporeBuddingblastosporeOtherasexualsporeZoosporeChlamydosporeSporangiosporeconidiospora

Sexualreproduction

OosporeZygosporeAscosporeBasidiospore節(jié)孢子(arthrospore)某些真菌生長到一定階段，菌絲中間形成許多隔膜，接著從隔膜處斷裂成許多竹節(jié)似的無性孢子，稱為節(jié)孢子，也稱為粉孢子。最典型的例于是白地霉(Geotrichumcandidum).arthrosporeBlastospore(芽孢子)

這和酵母菌的出芽一樣，它是由母細胞生芽而形成的。當(dāng)芽長到正常大小時，脫離母細胞，或仍連在母細胞上。如玉蜀黍黑粉菌(Ustilagomaydis)能產(chǎn)生芽孢子。某些毛霉或根霉在液體培養(yǎng)基中形成的被稱為酵母型細胞，也屬芽孢子。

又稱厚壁孢子或厚膜孢子。某些真菌生長到—定階段，在菌絲的頂端或中間有部分細胞的細胞質(zhì)密集在一起，變圓，然后在其四周生出厚壁，或原細胞壁加厚，形成圓形、紡錘形的無性休眠體，來抵抗外界不良的環(huán)境條件。例如總狀毛霉(Mucorracemosus)往往在菌絲中間形成許多厚垣孢子schlamydospore（厚垣孢子）

無性繁殖產(chǎn)生的孢子在孢子囊(Sporange)內(nèi),孢子囊一般生在氣生菌絲的頂端或生在孢囊梗(sporangiophore)的頂端。在形成孢子囊前，首先有多核的原生質(zhì)密集于此處，使其膨大，并在下方生出橫隔，形成圓形的囊狀物，然后其中原生質(zhì)體割裂成許多小塊，每—塊發(fā)育成為—個孢子囊孢子。因而每一·個孢子囊所含有的孢子的數(shù)—般都相當(dāng)多。就孢子囊孢子而言,—般有二類,一種具有—根或2~3根鞭毛，能夠游動，所以稱游動孢子(zoospore)。例如腐霉(即thium)。另一種無鞭毛，不能游動，又稱靜止擔(dān)于。sporangiospore

(孢子囊孢子)游動孢子

conidium

(分生孢子)

分生孢子的形成方法其形成方式有兩種，一種是在分生孢子梗的頂端突出，發(fā)育成第一個孢子。梗再伸長形成第二個孢子，如此重復(fù)形成一串孢子。這樣形成的分生孢子，頂端的最老。曲霉屬和青霉屆的分生孢子形成，即屬于此類型。

另一種是在第—個分生孢子形成時，柄的長度已達到最高，由第一個分生孢子頂端生長出第二個分生孢子，如此重復(fù)形成一串孢子。這樣形成的分生孢子，下部的最老。如枝孢霉屬(Cladosporium)的分生孢子形成即屬于此類型。Plastickitchencuttingboardsurface-rodbacteriainasmoothmatrix;filamentousbacteria(絲狀菌)-smoothovalcells;fungalhyphae(真菌菌絲)withtexturedspores(結(jié)構(gòu)孢子)(x2,270)conidiumZoospore（游動孢子）Asexualspore，usually

producedbyfungilivinginwater.Motilezoosporesinmotilesporangiadifferentiatedfromswelledhyphaltipshaveasingleposteriorflagellum。Thestructureoftheflagellumis9+2，somehastwoflagella.

霉菌的有性繁殖是經(jīng)過不同性別的細胞結(jié)合(質(zhì)配和核配)后，產(chǎn)生一定形態(tài)的孢子來實現(xiàn)的，這種孢子稱為有性孢子。繁殖過程可分為三個階段：第—個階段為質(zhì)配；第二個階段為核配，產(chǎn)生二倍體的核；第三個階段是減數(shù)分裂，恢復(fù)核的單倍體狀態(tài)。大多數(shù)真菌菌體是單倍體的。有性孢子通常有下列幾種：Sexualreproduction

菌絲分為雄器(antheridium)和藏卵器(oogonium)。藏卵器中有一個或數(shù)個卵球(oosphere)。當(dāng)雄器和藏卵器相配時，雄器中細胞質(zhì)與細胞核，通過受精管而進入藏卵器，與卵球結(jié)合形成卵孢子。圖所示是德巴利腐霉的卵孢子的形成。oospore

(卵孢子)

（b）同宗結(jié)合（a）異宗結(jié)合根霉的接合孢子Zygospore（接合孢子）ascospore（子囊孢子）形成子囊孢子是子囊菌的主要特征。子囊中孢子數(shù)目通常為1~8個，或為2n。典型的子囊中有8個孢子。大多數(shù)霉菌的子囊是包裹在子囊果（ascocarp）中。子囊果有三種類型子囊殼perithecium子囊盤apothecium閉囊殼cleistotheciumSexualreproductioninthisgroupoccursaftersomaticfusionofdifferentmating-typemycelia.Atransientdiploidphaseisrapidlyfollowedbytheformationofascosporeswithinsac-shapedascidifferentiatedfrommodifiedhyphaltips.Intheinitialstagesofascaldevelopmenthookedhyphaltipsform,calledcroziers（產(chǎn)囊絲鉤）orshepherds‘crooks（牧羊杖）

becauseoftheirshape.Theyhavedistinctiveseptaeattheirbasewhichinsurethattwodifferentmating-typenucleiaremain-tainedintheterminalcell.Formationoftheseptaeiscoordinatedwithnucleardivision.Inyeastsalltheseeventsoccurwithinonecell,afterfusionoftwomating-typecells,thewholecellbeingconvertedintoanascus.TheformationofascosporesSexualreproductionintheascomycetes

InmorecomplexAscomycetesmanyasciformtogether,creatingafertiletissuecalledahymenium（叫子實層的能育組織）.Insomegroupsthehymeniumcanbesupportedorevenenclosedbylargeamountsofvegetativemycelium.Thewholestructureiscalledafruitbodyorsporocarp（子囊果）andisusedasamajortaxonomicfeature.Theycanbecomelargeenoughtobeseenwiththenakedeye.Flask-shapedsexualreproductivebodiesarecalledperithecia,cup-shapedbodiesarecalledapotheciaandclosedbodiesarecalledcleistothecia.Thesestructureshaveevolvedtoprotecttheasciinsporedispersal，butthehymeniumitselfisunafectedbythepresenceofwater。TheformationofsporocarpanditsformsCup-shapedapotheciumFlask-shapedperitheciumClosedcleistotheciumAsciAsciAscuscontainingascosporesBasidiomycetefungirarelyreproduceasexually.Sexualreproductionisbytheformationofbasidiosporesonthegillsorporesoflargefruitbodies.Thisgroupoffungiarecharacterizedbythemostcomplexandlargestructuresfoundinthefungi.Theyarealsodistinctiveinthattheyveryrarelyproduceasexualspores.Muchofthelifecycleisspentasvegetativemycelium,exploitingcomplexsubstrates.Apreliminaryrequisitefortheonsetofsexualreproductionistheacquisitionoftwomatingtypesofnucleibythefusionofcompatiblehyphae.Singlerepresentativesofthetwomating-typenucleiareheldwithineveryhyphalcompartmentforextendedperiodsoftime.Thisistermedadikaryoticstate（雙核期）,anditsmaintenancerequireselaborateseptumformationduringgrowthandnucleardivision.Basidiospore

Onsetofsexual-sporeformationistriggeredbyenvironmentalconditionsandbeginswiththeformationofafruitbodyprimordium（子實體原基）.Dikaryoticmycelium（雙核菌絲體）expandsanddifferentiatestoformthelargefruitbodieswerecognizeasmushroomsandtoadstools（毒蕈）.Diploidformationandmeiosisoccurwithinamodifiedhyphaltipcalledabasidium。Basidiumformation核融合Nuclearfusion減數(shù)分裂meiosis擔(dān)孢子梗sterigmataBasidiospores擔(dān)孢子Basidium（擔(dān)子）BasidiumandbasidiosporeformationFoursporesarebuddedfromthebasidium.Basidiaformtogethertocreateahymeniumwhichishighlysensitivetothepresenceoffreewater.Thehym-eniumisdistributedoversterile,dikaryoticsupportingtissueswhichprotectitfromrain.Thehymeniumcanbeexposedongillsorporesbeneaththefruitbody,seeninthetoadstoolsandbracketfungi,orenclosedwithinchambersasinthepuffballsandtrufflesFormationofbasidiosporepuffball（馬勃）Bracket（檐狀傘）

Toadstool（毒蘑菇）Hymenenium（子實層）Structureofsexualsporocarpsinthebasidiomycetesbasidiospore（擔(dān)孢子）擔(dān)孢子是擔(dān)子菌特有的特征。它是一種外生孢子，經(jīng)過兩性細胞核配合后產(chǎn)生。因為它生在擔(dān)子上，所以稱為擔(dān)孢子。典型的擔(dān)子菌的擔(dān)子上有四個擔(dān)孢子。各種擔(dān)孢子的形狀及表面特征Foodrelatedmolds1.Aspergillus

曲霉屬2.penicillium（青霉屬）3.Rhizopus

（根霉屬）4.sporotrichum(側(cè)孢霉屬)5.Thamnidium(枝霉屬)6.Alternaria（交鏈孢屬）7.Botrytis（葡萄孢霉）8.Trichoderma（木霉屬）9.Monascus（紅曲屬）10.Gibberella（赤霉屬）

11.Cordyceps（蟲草屬）12.geotrichum（地霉屬）13.helminthosporium（長蠕孢霉）foodrelatedMouldsAspergillus曲霉屬分生孢子初生小梗孢子穗小梗次生小梗頂囊足細胞ConidiaprimarysterigmaconidialheadsterigmesecondarysterigmaVesiclefootcellMorphologyofConidialheadisthebasisforspeciesidentification孢子穗的形態(tài)是菌種鑒定的依據(jù)AspergillusRelationshipwithfood——beneficialFermentationindustrysoysauce釀醬vinegar制醋曲

fermentedbeancurd腐乳alcoholbeverage釀酒Foodprocessingorganicacid有機酸enzyme酶制劑

淀粉酶蛋白酶果膠酶等Relationshipwithfood——harmfulUsuallydistributedonthesurfaceoffollowingfoodstuff：Cakes、fruits、vegetables、meat、grainandotherorganicobjects。Causingfollowingconsequences：Gomouldy；becomemildewedProduceorsecretecarcinogenicsubstance（blastomogen）致癌物質(zhì)eg。aflatoxin（黃曲霉毒素）Foodrelatedmolds——penicillium（青霉屬）

十分接近于曲霉，在自然界分布很廣，長生長在腐爛的柑橘皮上，呈青綠色，不少種類引起食品變質(zhì)，但也用來生產(chǎn)青霉素和有機酸等。青霉菌菌絲與曲霉相似，但無足細胞，孢子穗結(jié)構(gòu)也不同。其分生孢子梗頂端不膨大，而是經(jīng)過多次分枝產(chǎn)生幾輪對稱或不對稱的小梗，然后在小梗的頂端產(chǎn)生成串的分生孢子。青霉菌的孢子穗形狀似掃帚狀。分生孢子球形、橢圓形或短柱形，一般呈藍綠色。

Plastickitchencuttingboardsurface-rodbacteriainasmoothmatrix;filamentousbacteria(絲狀菌)-smoothovalcells;fungalhyphae(真菌菌絲)withtexturedspores(結(jié)構(gòu)孢子)(x2,270)根霉在自然界分布廣泛，經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)在淀粉質(zhì)食品上，引起糧食、食品腐爛、腐敗。I工業(yè)上常利用根霉生產(chǎn)糖化酶，甜酒曲中主要菌種也是根霉。此外，根霉也可以用來生產(chǎn)有機酸等其它物質(zhì)。Foodrelatedmolds——Rhizopus（根霉屬）Rhizoid假根Stolen匍匐絲

sporangeUauallyblacksporangiophore

菌絲分隔·分生孢子梗分枝，頂端產(chǎn)生分生孢子。分生孢子單細胞，梨形。菌落呈奶油色澤，時間長后，為干燥粉末狀。已經(jīng)報告該菌能在O~C以下生長，常在冷藏肉中形成白色斑點。

foodrelatedmolds—sporotrichum

(側(cè)孢霉屬)S．Carnis肉色側(cè)孢霉Conidium分生孢子Conidiophore分生孢子梗Causethedeteriorationofvegetablesandfruitconidiumconidiophore形狀大小不定，數(shù)個連接成鏈，暗褐色，有縱橫隔膜，呈壁磚狀。大多數(shù)不分支，較短，單生或成簇，暗褐色。Foodrelatedmolds——Alternaria（交鏈孢屬）septatemyceliumFoodrelatedmolds——Botrytis（葡萄孢霉）conidiophoreconidium分生孢子梗頂端形成樹枝狀分支，分支頂端細胞常常膨大，在短的小梗上著生分生孢子，如一串葡萄。卵圓形，無色或暗褐色。常產(chǎn)生外形不規(guī)則的黑色菌核（sclerotium）。分布在許多植物和植物食品上，形成一層“灰色霉”，引起水果、蔬菜的腐敗。Foodrelatedmolds——Trichoderma（木霉屬）Sphericalorelliptical（oval），smmothorrough，yellow-greenconidiaColorlesshypha，withseptaandbranches，producechlamydosporesBottle-likesterigme瓶狀小梗Sporeheadgathered（conglutenated）bymucus（slime）Foodrelatedmolds——Trichoderma（木霉屬）Colonygrowsrapidly，likecottonfibre（棉絮狀），whiteatfirst，laterbecomegreen。Spore-producingareatakeson（has）concentriccirclesSonespecieshascellulolyticactivity，thereforecanbeusedtoproducecellulasetomanufacturesugarswithcellularwaste（下腳），starchprocessingandfoodprocessing

Moldygrain，fruitandvegetablesMildewandrotofcellularmaterial。Foodrelatedmolds——Monascus（紅曲屬）CansecreteredpigmentThesourceofnaturalredpigmentinthefoodprocessing，forinstanceredrice（ang-kak）usedintheprocessingofredfermentedbeancurd，bevarageandmeatispreparedfromMonascus。Typeculturethatcommonlyused：M.purpureus（紫紅曲）Foodrelatedmolds——Monascus（紅曲屬）Colonyfeatures：membranouscolonycoversthewholemaltextractplate，myceliumiswhiteatfirst，laterbecomesred，red-purple，thewater-solublepigmentsaresecretedintothemedium。conidiumFoodrelatedmolds——Monascus（紅曲屬）1~3initiatecleistothecium4~5prematurec