醫(yī)學(xué)英語(閱讀一分冊)翻譯及答案

1.Classificationoforgansystems2.Structureandfunctionofeachorgansystem3.AssociatedTounderstandthehumanbodyitisnecessarytounderstandhowitspartsareputtogetherbody'sfunctionisknownasphysiology.Otherstudiesofhumanbodyincludebiology,cytology,學(xué)；研究人體功能的科學(xué)叫生理學(xué)。其他研究人體的科學(xué)包括生物學(xué)、細(xì)胞學(xué)、胚胎學(xué)、組織學(xué)、內(nèi)分泌學(xué)、血液學(xué)、遺傳學(xué)、免疫學(xué)、心理學(xué)等等。system,themuscularsystem,thecirculatorysystem,therespiratorysystem,thedigestivesystem,theurinarysystem,theendocrinesystem,thenervoussystem,thereproductivesystemandtheskin.Theprincipalpartsofeachofthesesystemsaredescribedinthisa解剖學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)把整個(gè)人體分成骨骼、肌肉、循環(huán)、呼吸、消化、泌尿、內(nèi)分泌、神經(jīng)、生殖系統(tǒng)以及感覺器官的做法是很有幫助的。本文描繪并闡述了各系統(tǒng)的主要部分。Theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.Itsfunctionistoprovidesupportandprotectionforthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthebodyandtoprovideskeleton.Theyhavevariousshapes-long,short,cube-shaped,flat,andirregular.Manyofthe動(dòng)骨胳肌，引起各種運(yùn)動(dòng)。人體有206根骨頭。骨形態(tài)不一，有長的、短、立方的、不規(guī)則的。許多長骨里有一個(gè)內(nèi)層間隙，里面充填著骨髓，這即是血細(xì)胞的制造場所。movementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.Otherkindsofjointspermitmovement:eitherbackandforthinoneplane-aswiththehingejointoftheelbow-ormovementaroundasinglepossiblewhentheball-shapedendofonebonefitsintoasocketattheendofanotherbone,astheydointheshoulderandhipjoints.允許頭部轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大輻度的運(yùn)動(dòng)（如肩關(guān)節(jié)、髖關(guān)節(jié)）即成為可能。wherebonescometogether.Italsoconnectstheribstothebreastboneandprovidesastructuralbaseforthenoseandtheexternalear.Aninfant'sskeletonismadeofcartilagethatisgradually軟骨是一種比一般骨更具韌性的物質(zhì)。它是骨連結(jié)的保護(hù)、緩沖層。它把肋骨與胸骨連helpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.Striatedmusclescanbeconsciouslycontrolled.Theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesbyconnectivetissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemwholebody,aswhenwalking,ortomovejustonepartofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.Contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesarenotunderconsciouscontrol.Smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthestomachandtheintestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthebody.肌肉系統(tǒng)使軀體運(yùn)動(dòng)，肌肉收縮產(chǎn)生的熱有助于維持一個(gè)恒定的體溫。人體能夠有意識地控制條紋肌。結(jié)締組織使肌肉末端附著于不同的骨面壁內(nèi)層的平滑肌，如胃腸壁的平滑肌把胃腸中的物質(zhì)運(yùn)送到全身。Thecirculatorysystem.Allpartsofthebodymusthavenourishmentandoxygeninordertofunctionandgrow,andpoisonthebody.Thecirculatorysystemdistributesncardiovascularsystem.Thebloodisalsopartofthebody'sdefensesystem.Ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthatprotectthebodyagainstforeigninvaders.循環(huán)系統(tǒng)：機(jī)體的所有部分需胞來防止機(jī)體受到外來的侵襲。fromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsendsbloodthathastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.Whentheheartmusclecontracts,thebloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.Bloodreturnstotheheartthroughveins.心臟是一塊Alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.Someofthefluidthatsurroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.Thisfluid,calledlymph,returnstotheheartbywayofanothersystemofchannels-thelymphvessels.Lymphnodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.Thespleenisalargelymphaticorganthatfilterstheblood.淋巴系叫淋巴液，它是流經(jīng)另一個(gè)管道系統(tǒng)——淋巴管而回流人心臟。沿淋巴管的淋巴結(jié)將淋巴液過濾，過濾后再回流人血液。脾是一個(gè)過濾血液的大淋巴器官。vapor.Airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,andtrachea.Thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan20timestoformaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.Oxygenfromtheairentersthebloodthroughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodreleasecarbondioxideintotheairspacestobeexhaled.呼吸氣管分成左右支氣管，各連結(jié)左右肺，左右支氣管再分枝20多次，在終端形成大量微小的肺泡。從空氣攝取的氧氣流經(jīng)這些肺泡壁內(nèi)的毛細(xì)血管流入血液，血液再經(jīng)肺泡把釋放出的Thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.Init,foodaabsorbedintothecirculatorysystem.Thisbreakdown,knownasdigestion,isbothamechanicalandachemicalprocess.消化系統(tǒng)是一個(gè)從口腔直到肛門的管道。食物和液體在消化道里被吸收，在腸道里移動(dòng)時(shí)，被分解成小分子物質(zhì)后再進(jìn)入循環(huán)系統(tǒng)。這種分解，即消化，是一個(gè)機(jī)械過程，也是一個(gè)化學(xué)過程。Foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupandmakeiteasiertoswallow.Next,thContractionsofthestomach'smuscularwallcontinuetobreakdownthefoodmechanically,andchemicaldigestioncontinueswhenacidandenzymesaresecretedintothestomachcavity.食物進(jìn)入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液開始將食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接著，食物經(jīng)食管人胃。胃肌壁的收縮繼續(xù)機(jī)械化地分解食物，而當(dāng)酸和酶分泌入胃腔時(shí)，化學(xué)性消化開始。intestine,calledtheduodenum,enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.Theseenzymescompletethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.Thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,whichismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.Thesmallintestineofanadultisabout21feet(6.4meters)activities.液體化食物逐漸進(jìn)入小腸。小腸的起始部分叫十二指腸，胰腺分泌的酶輔助食物消化。這些酶完成食物的化學(xué)分解。肝臟分泌的膽汁貯存在膽囊內(nèi)，膽汁有助于脂肪消化。一個(gè)成年人的小腸有21英尺（6.4米）長。小腸的大部分腸段用來吸收消化過程中釋放的營Theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichisabout12feet(3.7meters)long.Itismorethantwiceaswideasthesmallintestine.Inthelargeintestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,Theurinarysystemmaintainsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainsmallmoleculessuchasefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvariousmoleculesandconservethose常水平。身體是通過讓’腎過濾血液來做到這一點(diǎn)的。腎是兩個(gè)有效的過濾器官，它濾出各Thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,trathebladder.Thebladderholdstheurineuntilitisvoidedfromthebodythroughanothertube,theurethra.從腎流出的液體，即尿，通過輸尿管人膀胱。膀胱起貯存尿液的作用，直到尿經(jīng)膀胱另一端的管道排出。Theendocrinesystem.Thetwosystemsthatcontrolbodyactivitiesaretheendocrinesystemandthenervoussystem.Theformerexertsitscontrolbymeansofchemicalmessengershormonesdirectlyintothebloodstream.內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)。內(nèi)分泌和神經(jīng)是調(diào)控機(jī)體活動(dòng)的兩個(gè)放入血流Amajorglandisthepituitary,whichislocatedunderthebraininthemiddleofthehead.Itproducesatleasteighthormones,whichaffectgrowth,kidneyfunction,anddevelopmentofthesexorgans.Becausesomeofthepituitary'shormonesstimulateotheownhormones,thepituitarycalledthemastergland.腦垂體是一個(gè)主要腺體，它位于頭中部垂體分泌的一些激素促進(jìn)其他腺體分泌激素，所以腦垂體是主要腺體。Anothergland,thethyroid,islocatedbetweenthecollarbones.Itshormonecontrolstherateofthebody'smetabolism.Thesexorgans(ovariesendtestes)makethesexcellsandalsomakehormonesthatcontrolcertaincharacteristicsofmalesandfemales.Locatedontopofeachkidneyistheadrenalgland,whichproducescortisoneandadrenaline.Thepancreasproducesnotonlydigestiveenzymesbutalso3insulinandglucagon,whichcontrolthebody'suseofsugarandstarches.另一個(gè)腺體，甲狀腺，位于鎖骨之間。甲狀腺激素調(diào)控著機(jī)體新陳代謝的速度。性器官（卵巢、睪丸）分泌性細(xì)胞和性激素，這些激素控制著男性和女性的某些特征。每邊血糖素，這兩種激素控制機(jī)體的糖分及淀粉的消耗。Thenervoussystem.Thebrain,thespinalcordandthenerve-alsocontrolsbodyactivities.Thelowerpartsofthebraincontrolbasicfunctionssuchasbreathingandheartrateaswellasbodytemperature,hunger,andthirst.Abovetheseregionsarethecentersforsight,sound,touch,smell,andtaste,andtheregionsthatdirectvoluntarymuscularactivitiesofthearmsandlegs.Performedherearetheh的基本活動(dòng)。而腦的偏上部位則是視覺、聽覺、觸覺、嗅覺及味覺中心，也是指揮臂、腿隨意肌肉運(yùn)動(dòng)的區(qū)域。神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)更高級的功能是整合、處理信息。spinalcord.Thespinalcordisprotectedbythespinalcolumn.Nervesenterandleavethespinalcordateachlevelofthebody,travelingtoandfromthearms,legs,andtrunk.Thesenerveinformationfromthevarioussenseorgans.Theinformationisprocessedbythebrain,andthenmessagesarecarriedbacktomusclesandglandsthroughoutthebody.腦通過神經(jīng)收集并傳送全身及腺體reproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducing,transportingandmaintainingviablesperm(the胞）。它也分泌男性激素、睪酮，以此調(diào)節(jié)胡須、陰毛、深沉嗓音極其他成年男子身體發(fā)育Thefemaleproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducingandtransportingova(thefemalesexcells),eliminatingovafromthebodywhentheyarenotfertilizedbysperm,nourishingandprovidingaplaceforgrowthofanembryowhenanovumisfertilizedbysperm,andnourishingaevaporation.Thenervesinthebody'stemperaturecloseto37°C,heatisconservedbyrexpendedbyincreasingbloodflowandbyevaporationofsweatfromtheskin.Hairandnailsareaccessorystructuresoftheskin.皮膚是保護(hù)肌體內(nèi)層結(jié)構(gòu)的完整層，也是機(jī)體的最大器官。的血流增加及汗液蒸發(fā)時(shí)，熱量就散發(fā)。頭發(fā)及指甲是皮膚的附屬結(jié)構(gòu)。CellsandTissues細(xì)胞與組織Cellsareorganizedgroupedintosystems.Eachbodysystemservesitsspecificfunctions.Bearinmindhoweverthatthebodyfunctionsasawholenosystemisindependentoftheothers.Theyworktogethertomaintainthebody’sstateofinternalstability,termedhomeowithcells,thesmallestunitoflivingmatterthatcanexistbyitself.細(xì)胞構(gòu)成組織，組織構(gòu)成器官，器官又進(jìn)一步構(gòu)成系統(tǒng)。人體的每個(gè)系統(tǒng)都有其作為一個(gè)整體來發(fā)揮作用的，沒有哪個(gè)系統(tǒng)能夠獨(dú)立于其他系統(tǒng)而存在，是整體系統(tǒng)共用保持了機(jī)體內(nèi)部的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)，即體內(nèi)平衡?，F(xiàn)在，我們先討論細(xì)胞─能獨(dú)立存在活性物質(zhì)的最小單位。Thebodycanbestudiedfromitssimplesttoitsmostcomplexlevel,beginningwiththecell.Allbodyfunctionsresultfromtheactivitiesofbillionsofthespecializedcells.Someplantsand我們能夠從最簡單到最復(fù)雜的水平來研究機(jī)體。所有人體的功能都來自億萬個(gè)特定細(xì)胞活動(dòng)，有的動(dòng)植物僅由一個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成，其他生物則由億萬個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成。Cellsexistinavarietyofshapesandsizes.Theymay,forexample,becube-shapedorflat.Scientistswhostudycellshavedeterminedthatasinglecellmaybeaslargeasatennisballorsosmallthatthousandswouldfitonthepointofaneedle.Theyolkofahen’seggisactuallyaverylargecell.Bycontrast,bacteriaeachoneofwhichisatinycellareamongthesmallestcells.Regardlessofitsshapeorsize,everycellcontainsthe“machinery”neededtomaintainlife.Whilenormallycellsfunctionwithgreatefficiency,theyaresubjecttovariousdisordersthatresultin獨(dú)一個(gè)細(xì)胞可以像網(wǎng)球一樣的大小，或小到幾千個(gè)細(xì)胞才能剛好填滿針頭。雞的蛋黃是一個(gè)非常大的單細(xì)胞。微小的細(xì)菌呢算是最小的細(xì)胞。不管是細(xì)胞大小或形狀的不同，每個(gè)細(xì)胞25,000micronsequalonaveragecellinthehumanbodyabouttenmiwithouttheaidofamicroscope.細(xì)胞的大小是以“微米”為長度單位。微米是一米的一百萬分之一，25000微米等于一寸。最小的細(xì)菌的圓徑是0.2微米。人體正常細(xì)胞的評價(jià)圓徑約十微米，肉眼勉強(qiáng)可以看得到，不需要顯微鏡的幫助。Thestudyofcellsisthebranchofbiologycalledcytology.Thesciencethatdealswithcellsonthesmalleststructuralandfunctionalleveliscalledmolecularbiology.研究關(guān)于“細(xì)胞”是生Allcellsconsistofprotoplasm,the“l(fā)ivingjelly.”Theprotoplasmofatypicalcellformsthreevitalpartsthecelsurroundsthenucleus.Thenucleus,enclosedbyitsownmembrane,isthecontrolcenterofthecell.(seeFigure1-1)所有細(xì)胞都是以“原生質(zhì)”，又稱“生命膠質(zhì)”所形成的。典型細(xì)胞的原生的化學(xué)反應(yīng)都在細(xì)胞核周圍，細(xì)胞質(zhì)完成的。被自己的膜包圍的細(xì)胞核是細(xì)胞的控制中心。thecellsMembrane細(xì)胞膜one-celledorganismsthisfluidisanexternalbodyofwatertheocean,alake,orastream.Formany-celledplantsandanimals,however,themediuminanimals,theblood.細(xì)胞只能存活在能供養(yǎng)分又能排除廢物的液體媒介中。對單細(xì)胞生物來說，這就是細(xì)胞外的液體，如：大海里、河里或水流中。在對多細(xì)胞生物而言，這種媒介就是生物體的一部分，植物以汁液的形式，動(dòng)物以血液的形式。Thecellmembraneissemipermeable,ordifferentiallyandtorejectharmfulsubstancesfromthesurroundingfluidaswellastoforceout,orexcretewasteproductsintothefluid.細(xì)胞膜是半滲透性或區(qū)別性的個(gè)特殊性使細(xì)胞對細(xì)胞周圍只吸收了需要的物質(zhì)而排除掉有害的物質(zhì)，包括細(xì)胞內(nèi)的廢物通過液體化后排出細(xì)胞外。Thecellmembraneisanextremelythinmolecules.Phospholipidsarechemicalssimilartostoredfat.Ontheevidenceofelectrmicrographs,biologistsbelievethatithasporintact.Substancesprobablocatedonthecellmembranecalledcaveolaegatherchemicalsignalsandchannelthemintothecells.Thecaveolaemayalsohelpdistributeproteinsthroughoutthecell.Largemoleculesenterthecellbyaprocesscalleddiffusion,inwhichtheymaybedissolvedbysubstancesinthecellmembrane.Theycanthenthroughthemembranewithoutdifficultlargemoleculesfloatingagainstit.Themolecule-and-fluid-filledpocketthenbreadsloosefromthemembranetobecomeabubblelikevacuole,andthevacuolethendriftsintothecytoplasm.Finally,thevacuolewallbreaksupandthemoleculesarereleasedintothecytoplasm.細(xì)胞膜是一種非常薄但確以很堅(jiān)固的蛋白磷脂膜形成。磷脂是一種類似于儲存的脂肪的蛋白物質(zhì)。通式從細(xì)胞膜進(jìn)入。細(xì)胞膜上的結(jié)構(gòu)，稱“小穴”，可接受化學(xué)信號再傳到細(xì)胞內(nèi)。小穴還可能參于細(xì)胞蛋白的分配。大的分子可通過“滲濾”進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)，或被細(xì)胞膜內(nèi)體分解，使它們更容易的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)。有些細(xì)胞可通過“胞飲”方式吞飲較大的物質(zhì)。這個(gè)過程是通過細(xì)胞膜在大物質(zhì)形成了“帶”把它包圍著，將它以泡狀的“液泡”引入細(xì)胞質(zhì)，最后包圍解散，大物質(zhì)成功的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)。Thecytoplasm細(xì)胞質(zhì)Thecytoplasmismainlywater.Itswatercontentvaritoamaximumofabout95percent.Thesolidsinthecytoplasmincludecarbohydrates,dropletsoffat,andpigments.Thecytoplasmisthusacolloidalsystem.細(xì)胞質(zhì)主要成分是“水”。水分含量有百分之65到最高，百分之95。細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)的固體包括蛋白顆粒、碳水化合物、脂肪小滴和色素。細(xì)胞質(zhì)是膠體性的。dispersedinthefluid.Whenthesolidcontentdecreases,thesestructuresseemtovanish.Changesinconcentrationalsoplacewithinthecell.Thisoccurs,forexample,whenfoodmoleculesenterthecell.細(xì)胞質(zhì)可能表現(xiàn)細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)局部流動(dòng)的變化。食物分子進(jìn)入時(shí)可見。Mostofthecell’sconstantworkofkeepingaliveisperformedinthecytoplasm.Herefoodmoleculesarechangedintothematerialneededforenergyandmaterialsforgrowthorstiffeningofthecellmembranearemanufacturesneededbytherestoftheorganism.Forexample,plantcellscontainingchlorophyllmanufactureglucoseaplantfoodfromcarbondioxideandwater.Oneofthecytoplasm’skeyenergytransactionsoccursinthesausage-shapedmitochondria.cytoplasmaretakenintothemitochondriaandoxidized,orburned,forenergy.細(xì)胞質(zhì)能量轉(zhuǎn)換的要點(diǎn)發(fā)生在錐狀形的線粒體。每個(gè)線粒體都有內(nèi)膜和外膜。像細(xì)胞膜一樣，線粒體的膜也是半滲透性。進(jìn)入線粒體的食物分子被氧化提供出能量。Theendoplasmicreticulum,anetworkofmembranoustubes,runsthroughthecytoplasmIntheopinionofsomebiologists,thisnetworkisacontinuousstructurethatbeginsatthecellmembrane,twiststhroughthecytoplasm,andendsatthemembranesurroundingthenucleus.Locatedalongtheendoplasmicreticulumaswellaselsewhereinthecytoplasmarenumerousribosomes.Thesetinygranulesconsistinpartofribonuclmanufacturedattheribosomes.TheGolgicomplex,orreticulumtotheGolgicomplex,wheretheyarestoredforlatersecretion.胞漿網(wǎng)，在細(xì)胞質(zhì)中扭絞，終點(diǎn)為細(xì)胞核的膜。分布于胞漿網(wǎng)包括細(xì)胞質(zhì)中某處的是核糖體。這些小顆粒是核糖核酸所形成的。蛋白質(zhì)是在核糖體合成的。高爾基體是膜狀囊包堆成層形成的。新合成的蛋白從胞漿網(wǎng)移動(dòng)到高爾基體儲存，為了后來分泌所用。VacuolesdriftthroughthecytoplasmandusuallycarryLysosomesarestructuressomewhatsimilarinappearancetovacuolesbutdenser.Theyappeartolysosomes.在細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)游動(dòng)的液泡一般是帶著食物分子的溶液。溶酶體是一種有點(diǎn)像液泡的通過“胞飲”方式的大物質(zhì)。也認(rèn)為高爾基體對溶酶體的形成有關(guān)系。TheNucleus細(xì)胞核Nearthecenterofthecellisaroundishoroval-shapednucleus.Thenucleuscontrolsthegrowthanddivisionofthecell.Italsocontainsthestructuresthattransmithereditarytraits.細(xì)胞的中央，圓形或橢圓形的就是細(xì)胞核。細(xì)胞核控制細(xì)胞的生長和分化。也裝著遺傳信息。Enclosedbyatwo-layeredmembrane,thenucleuscontainsaliquidcallednucleoplasmaswellasstrandsofdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)coveredwithacoatingofprotein.AstrandofDNAconsistsofalongseriesofgenes,whicharetheunitsofheredityofplantsandanimals.Genesdeterminethecharacteristicsofacell.TheydothisbyregulatingtheproductionofRNA,whichinturncontrolsthemanufactureofspecificproteins.被兩層膜圈住著，細(xì)胞核內(nèi)含有稱為“核質(zhì)（漿）”的液體和脫氧核糖核酸的蛋白層。脫氧核糖核酸縷是很長的基因系列所組成的，它readilystainedwithdyes,theyarecalledchromatin.Whenacellbeginstodivide,however,thechromatinthickensintotheformofchromosomes.列如：人的細(xì)胞，只產(chǎn)出人獨(dú)特?fù)碛械牡鞍住Ｃ撗鹾颂呛怂峥|一般都很細(xì)小過光學(xué)顯微鏡能觀察到。因?yàn)槊撗鹾颂呛怂峥|能夠染色后部分被染，稱“染色質(zhì)”。細(xì)胞分化過程中，染色體拾起變厚形成了“染色體”。AnucleusnotundergoingdivisconcentrationofRNA.BiologiststhinkRNAismadeinitiallyinthenucleusaccordingtoaDNA“blueprint”andstoredthereuntilneededforproteinmanufacture.細(xì)胞核分化核仁不會減少，最少要有一個(gè)核仁。核仁含有豐富的核糖核酸。生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為核糖核酸原本在核仁里，根據(jù)脫氧核糖核酸的藍(lán)圖造出而藏在此處直到有蛋白合成的需要。thenucleusofanimalcellsisasphericalstructurecalledthecentrosome,fromwhichastersradiate.Thecentrosomecontainsapairofroddedstructurecalledcentrioles,whichusuallylieatrightanglestoeachother.Althoughcentriolesandcentrosomeshavenotbeenseeninplantcells,biologistsbelievethatplantcellscontainsimilarstructures.靠近動(dòng)物的細(xì)胞核的圓形結(jié)構(gòu)叫“中心體”，可見呈放射狀散發(fā)的星體。中心體內(nèi)含有一對棍狀結(jié)構(gòu)，稱為“中心?！?，一般都形成正確固定的角度。無法在植物細(xì)胞發(fā)現(xiàn)中心體和中心粒，但生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為植物應(yīng)該有存在類似功能的其他結(jié)構(gòu)。Tissues組織Cellsareorganizedintotissuesthatperformspecificfunctions.Thefourbasictissuetypesareasfollows:多細(xì)胞組成了組織，為了特異的功能。四種基本的組織：cavities.上皮組織:覆蓋及保護(hù)著身體結(jié)構(gòu)和分清器官、導(dǎo)管和空腔。Connectivetissuessupportsandbindsbnonlivingmaterialbetweenthecells;includedarefattissues,cartilage,boneandblood.結(jié)締組骨、骨頭和血液。Muscletissuescontractstoproducemovement.Thethreetypesaremusclethatmovestheskeleton;thecardiacmuscleoftheheart;andthesmoothmusclethatformsthewallsoftheabdominalorgans.Cardiacandsmoothmusclecanfunctionwithoutconsciouscontrolandarethusdescribedasinvoluntarymuscle.肌肉組織:通過收拾來產(chǎn)生動(dòng)作。分為三種：骨骼肌，作用于一般骨骼移動(dòng)。心機(jī)，心臟的肌肉。平滑肌，形成胃腸道壁的肌肉。心機(jī)和平滑肌是非意識性，不隨意性肌肉。Nervoustissue——makesupthebrain,spinalcord,andnerves.Itcoordinatesandcontrolsbodyresponsesbytransmittingelectricalimpulses.神經(jīng)組織:組成大腦、脊椎和神經(jīng)。它是通過動(dòng)作電位來超空身體。Thesimplesttissuesaremembranes.Mucousmembranessecretethickfluidcalledmucusthatprotectsunderlyingtissues.Serousmembranessecreteathin,wateryfluid.Theylinebody用。粘液組織分泌出較稀的粘液，起得身體導(dǎo)管的分界和覆蓋著各個(gè)器官。Inthispassageyouwiimmunitytodiseasesdifferentstudiesthatareconsideredthefundamentalsofmedicalsciences,namelyanatomyandphysiology.However,thepictureisnotcompletewithoutconsideringpathology,thesciencethatdealswiththestructuralandfunctionalchangesproducedbythedisease.Infact,approachtothestudyofdisorderemphasizesthecloserelationshipofthepathologicalandphysiologicalaspectsandtheneedtounderstandthefundamentalsofeachintreatinganybodydiseases.第一章中，通過對人體的概論，即解剖學(xué)與生理學(xué)，我們對兩種被認(rèn)為是醫(yī)學(xué)基了病理學(xué)與生理學(xué)方面的密切關(guān)系，強(qiáng)調(diào)了我們在治療任何人體疾病方面需要了解病理學(xué)與生理學(xué)基礎(chǔ)的重要性。Thenwhatisadisease?Itmaybedefinedasaconditionthatimpairstheproperfunctionofinfectedbyevenmoreminuteviruses.那么什么是疾病呢？它可能被定義為正常的功能或是常常被微小的細(xì)菌所感染，但是，反過來說，細(xì)菌又能夠被甚至更加微小的病毒所感染。Hundredsofdifferentdiseasesexist.Eachhasitsownparticularsetofsymptomsandsigns,detect,suchasfever,bleeding,orpain.Asignissomethingadocbloodvesseloranenlargedinternalbodyorgan.許多種疾病存manypersonsinacommunity.Whenitstrikesthesameregionyearafteryearitisanendemicdisease.Anacutediseasehasaquickonsetandrunsashortcourse.Anacuteheartattack,forexample,oftenhitswithoutwarningandcanbequicklyfatal.Achronicdiseasehasaslowonsetandrunsasometimesyears-longcourse.Thegradualonsetandlongcourseofrheumaticfevermakesitachronicailment.Betweentheacuteandchronic,anothertypeiscalledsubacute.疾一年地襲擊同一社區(qū)，就成了一種地方病。急性病發(fā)作快，但病程短，舉個(gè)例子來說，急性風(fēng)濕熱正是由于發(fā)病慢、病程長而成為一種慢性失調(diào)?。圆。?。而介于急性與慢性之間airbornedropletsfromacoughorsneeze.Tinyorganismssuchasbacteriaandfungicanproduceinfectiousdiseases.Socanviruses.Socantinyworms.Whateverthecausativeagentmightbe,itorganismgetsintoapersonwhoshowsnosymptomsofthedisease.Theasymptomaticcarriercanthenpassthediseaseontosomeoneelsewithoutevenknowinghehasit.疾病也可以依其侵人人體后，該人卻沒有顯示帶病的癥狀。于是無癥狀的病原攜帶者甚至在自己也不知情的情況下就把疾病傳染給了他人。Noninfectiousdiseasesarecausedbymalfunctitissuedegeneration,erraticcellgrowth,andfaultybloodformationandflow.Alsoincludedaredisturbancesofthestomachandintestine,theendocrinesystem,andthedefensesystem,orapoorlyoperatingnervoussystem.非傳染性疾病是由身體功能失調(diào)引起包括胃、腸、內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)和泌尿生殖系統(tǒng)的紊亂。一些疾病也可能是由飲食不足、身體抵抗力下降、或是神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)工作不造成的。ailmentsincludedrugaddiction,obesity,malnutrition,andpollution-causedhealthproblems.心成的健康問題。Furthermore,athousandormoreinheritablebirthdefectsresultfromalternationsingenepatterns.Sincetinygenesareresponsibleforproducingthemanychemicalsneededbythebody,missingorimproperlyoperatinggenescanseriouslyimpairhealth.Geneticdisordersthataffect小小的基因負(fù)責(zé)著生產(chǎn)許多身體所需的化學(xué)物質(zhì)，它的遺失或是工作狀態(tài)不良都會嚴(yán)重?fù)p害HowGermsInvadetheBody病菌是怎樣侵襲HumansliveinaworldwheremanyotherlivingthiThepathogenicorganisms,orpathogens,oftenbroadlycalledgerms,thatcausemanydiseasesareabletoinvadethehumanbodyanduseitscellsandfluidsfortheirownneeds.Ordinabody'sdefensesystemcanwardofftheseinvaders.人類生活在有一個(gè)有許多其它生物競爭食Pathogenicorganismscanenterthebodyinvariousways.Some-suchasthesethatcausethecommoncold,pneumonia,andtuberculosis-arebreathedin.Otthosethatcausehepatitis,colitis,cholera,contaminatedfood,waterorutensils.病原有機(jī)體能通過多種方式進(jìn)入身體。它們的一些是被體內(nèi)的，比如那些引起肝炎、霍亂和傷寒熱的病原體。Insectscanspreaddiseasebyactingaswasteorothertaintedmaterialstofoodandbeverages.Germsmayalsoenterthebodythroughthebiteofamosquito,louse,orotherinsectvector.昆蟲作為媒介動(dòng)物或是病原攜帶者會傳播疾病。蒼蠅能將病菌從人類的廢物或其它腐爛的材料中帶到食物和飲料中去。通過蚊子、虱子或其它媒介動(dòng)物的叮咬，病菌也可能進(jìn)入體內(nèi)。Asafirstlineofdefense,ahealthybodyhasanumberofphysicalbarriersagainstinfection.Theskinandmucousmembranescoveringtheresistancetoinvasionbybacteriaandotherinfectiousorganisms.Ifthesephysicalbarriersareinjuredorburned,infectionresistancedrops.Inminorcases,onlyboilsorpimplesmaydevelop.Inmajorcases,however,largeareasofthebodymightbecomeinfected.作為第一條防線，一個(gè)健康的身體有許多屏障來抵御感染的發(fā)生。覆蓋在體表或者器官開口處的皮膚和粘膜能在很大程度上抵抗細(xì)菌或其它感染體的入侵。如果這些屏障遭到了損壞或燒傷，身體對感染的抵身體的大面積區(qū)域則可能會被感染。mucus-secretingcellsthattraptinyorganismsanddustparticles.Also,minutehairscalledciliarespiratorytract.Inaddition,foreignmatterinthebreathingpassagescanoftenbeejectedbynoseblowing,coughing,sneezing,andthroa道，它們象微風(fēng)下麥田里的小麥一樣舞動(dòng)著，輕輕地將異物掃出呼吸道。除此之外，呼吸道其它別的原因會損壞呼吸道，并且使它們?nèi)菀资艿礁腥?。Manypotentialinvaderscannotstandbodytemperature(98.6°For37°C).Eventhosethatthriveatthattemperaturemaybedestroyedwhenthebodyassumeshigher,fevertemperatures.很多潛在的人侵者不能在華氏98.6度或攝氏37度下生存。如果體溫再升高一點(diǎn)，達(dá)到高燒溫度，甚至一些在先前溫度下能蓬勃繁殖的病菌也可能會因此而遭到毀滅。Waxintheouterearcanalsandtearsfromeyeductscanslowthegrowthofsomebacteria.Andstomachacidcandestroycertainswallowedgerms.外耳道里的蠟質(zhì)和淚管里的眼淚能減緩一些細(xì)菌的生長速度，而胃酸也能毀掉某種吞食進(jìn)去的病菌。Thebody'ssecondlineofdefenseisinthebloodandlymph.Certainwhitebloodcellsflocktoinfectedareasandabscessbreaksandallowsthepustodrain,theinfectionislikelytospread.Whenthishappens,theinfectionisfirstblockedbylocallymphglands.Forexample,aninfectioninthehandtravelsupthearm,producingredstreaksandswollen,tenderlymphglandsinthearmpit.Unlesstheinfectionisbroughtundercontrol,itwillresultinbloodpoisoning身.體的第二條防線是在血液如，手上的感染在向上傳到手臂時(shí)，手臂上會出現(xiàn)紅線條，腋窩處會腫脹，有觸痛。如果不及時(shí)控制住感染的上傳，將會導(dǎo)致血液中毒。intestinesremovecertainbacteriaandshatteredcells.吞噬細(xì)胞處于身體多種不同的部位而使得感染的機(jī)會變小。位于肝脾內(nèi)的一類能使身體的血液保持干凈。其它的位于像支氣管壁和腸壁這樣高危險(xiǎn)區(qū)的類型能清除某類細(xì)茵和已解體的細(xì)胞。HowWeBecomeImmunetoDisease我們是怎樣變得對疾病有免疫力的Thebodyhasaspecialwayofhandlinginfection.Ithasasystemthatfendsoffthefirsttracesofaninfectioussubstanceandthen,througha"memory,"givesthebodyalong-lastingimmunity統(tǒng)，能夠一開始就阻止感染性物質(zhì)的侵襲，然后通過“記憶”，它能給身體—個(gè)長期的免疫力來抵抗將來由同種入侵者引起的侵襲。Manysubstancescouldharmthebodyiftheyeverenteredit.Thesesubstances,orantigens,rangefrombacteriaandpollentoatransplantedorgan(viewedbythebodyasaninvader).Tofightthemthebodymakesspecialchemicalsknownasantibodies.許多物質(zhì)對身體們一旦進(jìn)入身體的話。這些物質(zhì)，或稱為抗原，包括從細(xì)菌，花粉到被移植的器官都被身體視為人侵者。為了抵抗它們身體制造出了特殊的化學(xué)物質(zhì)，這就是抗體。Antibodiesareaclassofproteinscalledimmunoglobulins.Eachantibodyismadeofaheavychainofchemicalsubunits,oraminoacids,andalightchainofthem.Thelightchainhasspecialsiteswheretheaminoacidscanlinkwiththeircomplementsontheantigenmolecule.Whenanopsonization，antibodies"butter"thesurfacephagocytes,whichengulftheantigens.Sometimesanantibodyhookstoabacterialantigenbutneedsanintermediate,orcomplement,toactuallydestroythebacterium.Astheantibody-antigencomplexcirculatesintheblood,thcomplementcausespowerfulenzymestorganismburst.抗體是一類被稱為免疫球蛋白的蛋白質(zhì)。每一個(gè)抗體由一條化學(xué)亞單位（即它的關(guān)鍵有害部分來使抗原失去其作用。在某些情況下，通過調(diào)理素作用的過程，抗體在抗原表面涂抹上一些“奶油”，讓吞噬細(xì)胞更喜歡吞噬它們。在另一些情況下，抗體和一個(gè)細(xì)菌了細(xì)菌的細(xì)胞壁，細(xì)菌有機(jī)體就爆開了。Thereareseveralkindsofimmunoglobulins-IgM,thelargest;IgG,themostplentifulandsecretionscoulddamageotherantibodies.OtherimmunoglobulinsaretiedinwithallergiceffectiveIgG.抗體有若干種免疫球蛋白：體積最大的是igM，數(shù)量最多、用途最多的是IgG，Wheninfectionfirststrikes,theimmunitysystemdoesnotseemtobeworking.Duringthebecausethebasiccellsinvolvedinantibodyproductionhavebeentriggeredbythepresenceofantigentomultiplythemselves.TheThefirstantibodies,thelargeIgMtype,arenotthebestqualifiedtofightawiderangeofantigens,buttheyareparticularlyeffectiveagainstbacteria.ThemoreversatileIgGiscirculatinginthebloodonaboutthefourthdayofinfection.Itsproductionisstimulatedbytherisinglevelconcentratesonmaking自感染第四天開始在血液中循環(huán)，它的產(chǎn)生是因?yàn)槭芰搜褐蠭gM水平增高的刺激。至此，原不能再激發(fā)免疫反應(yīng)，而系統(tǒng)最終停止生產(chǎn)IgG。這是消極反饋控制的一個(gè)例子。Diagnosisandprognosis診斷和預(yù)后Inmostclinicalencounters,thepatientpresentsbasicquestionstothedoctor:what’swrongwithme?Whatiscausingmyillness?Thesequestionssetthestageformakingadiagnosis,i.e.examinationandlaboratorytestinTheprocessofdiagnosingadiseasebeginswiththeperson’shealthhistory.Thephysicianasksthepatientquestionsonbsoon.Thefollowingtablepresentstypicalcontentsofastandardmedicalhistory.診斷在大多數(shù)的就診過程中，病人會向醫(yī)生提出一些很基礎(chǔ)的問題，例如：“我是不是生了??？”“我的病是什么原因引起的？”這些