國際貿(mào)易中英文對(duì)照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn) 中英文翻譯進(jìn)口玩具的安全，消費(fèi)者保護(hù)和世界貿(mào)易組織的技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)定：前景，進(jìn)展和問題全球貿(mào)易、人權(quán)和進(jìn)口的安全人類和動(dòng)物受進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品感染的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不應(yīng)該被過分夸大。受污染的二乙二醇感冒藥導(dǎo)致100多人死亡，幾十人得病，其中多達(dá)21人死亡可能與肝素有關(guān)。肝素是一種流行的抗凝劑，它廣泛應(yīng)用于透析和心臟手術(shù)中，以達(dá)到延緩血液凝塊的目的。據(jù)美國食品與藥品監(jiān)督管理局(FDA)調(diào)查所知，這個(gè)主要的抗血凝藥物包含一個(gè)偽造成份，美國食品與藥品監(jiān)督管理局采用先進(jìn)的磁場核磁共振成像的測試來讓它模擬真正的藥物。據(jù)了解，美國食品及藥品監(jiān)督管理局發(fā)現(xiàn)多達(dá)20%的產(chǎn)品的活躍成分是假的。在一個(gè)快速全球化的世界中，各國應(yīng)如何確保進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品的安全呢？世貿(mào)組織成員國能單方面對(duì)玩具的制定特點(diǎn)或相關(guān)的工藝流程及生產(chǎn)方法采用新條例嗎？這些問題是由技術(shù)法規(guī)和國際貿(mào)易法的相關(guān)準(zhǔn)則以及人權(quán)法而產(chǎn)生的。一方面,技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)既可以作為一種貿(mào)易壁壘，同時(shí)對(duì)消費(fèi)者產(chǎn)品偏好、質(zhì)量期望和價(jià)格選擇產(chǎn)生負(fù)面影響。技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中有關(guān)玩具質(zhì)量和安全的規(guī)定即這些規(guī)定并沒有歧視性的“法理”或“事實(shí)”，但這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和法規(guī)在國際之間的差異也有可能造成貿(mào)易障礙。假定組成世界貿(mào)易組織的153個(gè)成員決定創(chuàng)造他們自己的玩具安全法規(guī)及標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，對(duì)于一個(gè)中國玩具制造商來說，他有可能就得面對(duì)153種法規(guī)，并且還要遵守這些法規(guī)及標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，而這樣會(huì)導(dǎo)致他失去規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)。在另一方面,技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)又讓人們?cè)絹碓秸J(rèn)識(shí)到健康與安全條例是政府責(zé)任的核心。各國政府有主權(quán)權(quán)利和責(zé)任來保護(hù)他們的公民免受傷害。A/RES/54/165號(hào)決議在1999年通過了，聯(lián)合國大會(huì)指出：“雖然世界趨于全球化，但一個(gè)國家所扮演的角色有可能影響人權(quán)，促進(jìn)和保護(hù)所有人權(quán)是國家的首要責(zé)任”。A/RES/54/165號(hào)決議的第15條中也強(qiáng)調(diào)：“分析全球化對(duì)充分享有各項(xiàng)人權(quán)的影響是必要的”。其第16條是關(guān)于兒童的健康和安全，聯(lián)合國公約關(guān)于兒童權(quán)利（CRC）的第3條中規(guī)定：“關(guān)于兒童的一切行動(dòng)，不論是由公私社會(huì)福利機(jī)構(gòu)、法院、行政當(dāng)局或立法機(jī)構(gòu)執(zhí)行，均應(yīng)以兒童的最大利益為一種首要考慮。”第17條中兒童權(quán)利委員會(huì)還對(duì)每一個(gè)孩子的生命權(quán)（第6條），健康權(quán)（第24條）和“適當(dāng)年齡孩子休息和閑暇，以及從事游戲和娛樂活動(dòng)”的權(quán)利進(jìn)行擔(dān)保。根據(jù)兒童權(quán)利公約19條的規(guī)定:“締約國應(yīng)采取一切適當(dāng)?shù)牧⒎?、行政、社?huì)和教育措施，保護(hù)兒童在受父母、法定監(jiān)護(hù)人或其他任何負(fù)責(zé)照管兒童的人的照料時(shí)，不致受到任何形式的身心摧殘、傷害或凌辱，忽視或照料不周，虐待或剝削，包括性侵犯”。總的來說,技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)涉及了國家主權(quán)、國內(nèi)安全、衛(wèi)生、人權(quán)和自由貿(mào)易這些敏感的問題。政策制定者正面臨著應(yīng)如何采取法律和政策來充分地保護(hù)公民的權(quán)利和福利,而又不至于破壞公民的基本原則的多邊貿(mào)易體制的挑戰(zhàn)。哈佛大學(xué)國際發(fā)展中心認(rèn)為：“政府法規(guī)或商品的行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)至少在三個(gè)方面影響貿(mào)易：首先，他們可以以清楚地定義交易產(chǎn)品的特點(diǎn)、改善兼容性和可用性的方式來方便交易；他們也可以提高國內(nèi)社會(huì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，比如公共衛(wèi)生通過建立最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或安全要求規(guī)定；最后，他們還可以隱藏保護(hù)主義政策”。產(chǎn)品安全，國內(nèi)管理自主權(quán)和世貿(mào)組織技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議政府法規(guī)和行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)制定了一些產(chǎn)品的特性，TBT協(xié)定也涵蓋了有關(guān)玩具的相關(guān)生產(chǎn)流程和生產(chǎn)方法。TBT協(xié)議將技術(shù)法規(guī)定義為一個(gè)“制定產(chǎn)品特征或相關(guān)的工藝和生產(chǎn)方法”的文件，它既包括了適用的行政規(guī)定，該規(guī)定是強(qiáng)制性的，也包括了專門術(shù)語、符號(hào)、包裝、標(biāo)志或標(biāo)簽，其要求適用于產(chǎn)品、工藝或生產(chǎn)方法。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議也適用于技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和合格評(píng)定，恰如該協(xié)議中的附件I所說的。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議所涵蓋的產(chǎn)品范圍較廣。從本質(zhì)上講，所有產(chǎn)品，包括工業(yè)和農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品都受TBT第21條協(xié)議規(guī)定。然而，采購規(guī)格是由第22條協(xié)議“政府機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)產(chǎn)品的編制或政府機(jī)構(gòu)消費(fèi)需求”規(guī)定。技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘是尊重國家主權(quán)，保障公民健康和安全，確保技術(shù)法規(guī)對(duì)國際貿(mào)易的變相貿(mào)易壁壘不運(yùn)作之間的一條連接線。如第六段序言段所示：“任何國家都應(yīng)采取措施保障出口產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量，保護(hù)人類健康和安全，保護(hù)動(dòng)植物的生命和健康，保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境，或防止欺詐行為，在此范圍內(nèi)認(rèn)為是合理的，可以根據(jù)本協(xié)議規(guī)定，而技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘不適用于一系列專制或國家之間的不公平歧視?！?/p>

技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的協(xié)議和尊重國內(nèi)監(jiān)督管理自治雖然TBT協(xié)定的一些規(guī)定似乎限制國內(nèi)監(jiān)管自主，但是從該協(xié)議的其他規(guī)定來看它又保持了國內(nèi)監(jiān)管自主權(quán)。首先，在第2條第4款規(guī)定中表明：“各成員的技術(shù)法規(guī)是不完全的，應(yīng)以相關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為基礎(chǔ)”。當(dāng)相關(guān)的囯際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)無效或不合適時(shí)這條規(guī)定是不適用的。其次，即使一個(gè)國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)存在，各成員沒必要完全依照該標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，各成員可以采用這種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的相關(guān)部分。再次，如果成員國所采取的措施是為了挑戰(zhàn)另外的成員國，則相關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)將是有效或合理的。在“歐共體—沙丁魚”中，世貿(mào)組織上訴機(jī)構(gòu)認(rèn)為抱怨國有義務(wù)證明被抱怨方違反了技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議第2條第4款中的規(guī)定。因此，起訴成員不僅要表明有關(guān)國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)沒有被用作挑戰(zhàn)法規(guī)的依據(jù)，還必須表明有關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對(duì)相應(yīng)成員是一個(gè)有效或適當(dāng)?shù)氖侄?。最后，政府的采購是不在TBT協(xié)定中的。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議第1條第4款中明確規(guī)定：“政府機(jī)構(gòu)為其生產(chǎn)或消費(fèi)要求所制定的采購規(guī)格不受本協(xié)定規(guī)定的約束，而應(yīng)根據(jù)《政府采購協(xié)定》的范圍由該協(xié)定處理?！币虼耍鞯胤?、州和聯(lián)邦政府的采購規(guī)范是不在該協(xié)議下的。文獻(xiàn)來源：UcheU.Ofodile.Import(toy)safety,consumerprotectionandtheWTOAgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTrade:prospects,progressandproblems.Int.J.PrivateLaw,Vol.2,No.2,2009Import(toy)safety,consumerprotectionandtheWTOAgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTrade:prospects,progressandproblemsGlobaltrade,humanrightsandimportsafetyTherisktohumanandanimallifeoftaintedimportedproductscannotbeoverstated.Morethan100peoplediedfromtakingthediethyleneglycol-taintedcoldmedicinesanddozensmorebecameill.Asmanyas21deathsmaybelinkedtoheparin,apopularbloodthinnerwidelyusedindialysisandheartprocedurestostaveoffbloodclots.AccordingtotheUSFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA),thecriticalbloodthinnercontainedacounterfeitingredientthatmimickedtherealdrug.14Usingsophisticatedmagneticresonanceimagingtests,theFDAuncoveredthatasmuchas20%oftheproduct’sactiveingredientwasanimitation.Inafastglobalisingworld,howcancountriesbesurethatproductsthatarriveontheirshoresaresafe?CanWTOmemberstatesunilaterallyadoptnewregulationsthatlaydowncharacteristicsorrelatedprocessesandproductionmethodsfortoys?Thequestionarisesbecausetechnicalregulationsandstandardsimplicateinternationaltradelawandhumanrightslaw.Ononehand,technicalregulationsandstandardscanoperateasbarrierstotradeandnegativelyimpactconsumerproductpreferences,qualityexpectationsandpriceoptions.Technicalregulationsandstandardsrelatingtotoyqualityandsafety,evenifnotdiscriminatory‘dejure’or‘defacto’maycreateobstaclestotradebythefactthatthesestandardsandregulationsvaryfromonecountrytoanother.Assumingthe153membersthatmakeuptheWTOdecidetocreatetheirowntoysafetyregulationsandstandards,atoymanufacturerinChina,forexample,wouldbefacedwithsome153regulationstocomplywith.Theresultwouldbelossofeconomiesofscale.Onotherhand,itisincreasinglyrecognisedthathealthandsafetyregulationsareatthecoreofgovernmentresponsibility.Governmentshavethesovereignrightandtheresponsibilitytoprotecttheircitizensfromharm.InResolutionA/RES/54/165adoptedin1999,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblynotedthat‘whileglobalisation,byitsimpacton,‘interalia’,theroleofthestatemayaffecthumanrights,thepromotionandprotectionofallhumanrightsis,firstandforemost,theresponsibilityofthestate’.15ResolutionA/RES/54/165alsoemphasized‘theneedtoanalysetheconsequencesofglobalisationforthefullenjoymentofallhumanrights’.16Regardingthehealthandsafetyofchildren,Article3oftheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)stipulatesthat‘[i]nallactionsconcerningchildren,whetherundertakenbypublicorprivatesocialwelfareinstitutions,courtsoflaw,administrativeauthoritiesorlegislativebodies,thebestinterestsofthechildshallbeaprimaryconsideration’.17TheCRCalsoguaranteestoeverychild,therighttolife(Article6),therighttohealth(Article24)andtheright‘torestandleisure,toengageinplayandrecreationalactivitiesappropriatetotheageofthechild’.PursuanttoArticle19oftheCRC,statespartiesundertaketo‘take‘a(chǎn)llappropriatelegislative,administrative,socialandeducationalmeasurestoprotectthechildfromallformsof’…injuryorabuse…whileinthecareofparent(s),legalguardian(s)oranyotherpersonwhohasthecareofthechild’.Overall,technicalregulationsandstandardstouchonsensitiveissuesofstatesovereignty,domesticsecurity,publichealth,humanrightsandfreetrade.Thechallengeforpolicymakersistoadoptlawsandpoliciesthatadequatelyprotecttherightsandwelfareoftheircitizenswithoutunderminingthefundamentalprinciplesofthemultilateraltradingsystem.AstheCenterforInternationalDevelopmentatHarvardUniversityrightlyobservedthat‘governmentregulationsorindustrystandardsforgoodscanimpacttradeinatleastthreeways:theycanfacilitateexchangebyclearlydefiningproductcharacteristicsandimprovingcompatibilityandusability;theyalsoadvancedomesticsocialgoalslikepublichealthbyestablishingminimumstandardsorprescribingsafetyrequirements;finally,theycanhideprotectionistpolicies’.18Productsafety,domesticregulatoryautonomyandtheWTOTBTAgreementGovernmentregulationsandindustrystandardsthatlaydowncharacteristicsorrelatedprocessesandproductionmethodsfortoysarecoveredbytheTBTAgreement.TheAgreementdefinesatechnicalregulationasa‘documentwhich‘laysdownproductcharacteristicsortheirrelatedprocessesandproductionmethods’,includingtheapplicableadministrativeprovisions,withwhichcomplianceismandatory.Itmayalsoincludeordealexclusivelywithterminology,symbols,packaging,markingorlabellingrequirementsastheyapplytoaproduct,processorproductionmethod’.19TheTBTAgreementalsoappliestotechnicalstandardsandconformityassessmentasdefinedinAnnexIoftheAgreement.20TheTBTAgreementcoversabroadrangeofproducts.Essentially,allproducts,includingindustrialandagriculturalproductsaresubjecttotheprovisionsoftheagreement.21Excluded,however,arepurchasingspecifications‘preparedbygovernmentalbodiesforproductionorconsumptionrequirementsofgovernmentalbodies’.22TheTBTAgreementworksafinelinebetweenrespectingthesovereignrightofstatestosafeguardthehealthandsafetyoftheircitizensandensuringthattechnicalregulationsdonotoperateasdisguisedbarrierstointernationaltrade.Thesixthpreambularparagraphreads:“Recognisingthatnocountryshouldbepreventedfromtakingmeasuresnecessarytoensurethequalityofitsexports,orfortheprotectionofhuman,animalorplantlifeorhealth,oftheenvironment,orforthepreventionofdeceptivepractices,atthelevelsitconsidersappropriate,subjecttotherequirementthattheyarenotappliedinamannerwhichwouldconstituteameansofarbitraryorunjustifiablediscriminationbetweencountrieswherethesameconditionsprevailoradisguisedrestrictiononinternationaltradeandareotherwiseinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthisAgreement.”TheTBTAgreementandrespectfordomesticregulatoryautonomyWhilesomeprovisionsoftheTBTAgreementappeartoconstraindomesticregulatoryautonomy,otherprovisionsoftheAgreementappearstopreservedomesticregulatoryautonomy.First,therequirementinArticle2.4thatmembersuserelevantinternationalstandardsasabasisfortheirtechnicalregulationisnotabsolute.Therequirementdoesnotapplywhenrelevantinternationalstandards‘wouldbeanineffectiveorinappropriatemeansforthefulfilmentofthelegitimateobjectivespursuedmembers’.38Second,evenwhenapertinentinternationalstandardexists,membersneednotbasetheirmeasureentirelyonsuchastandard,butcanuse‘relevantparts’ofsuchstandards.Third,theburdenofproofisonamemberchallenginganothermember’smeasuretoprovethattherelevantinternationalstandardswouldnotbeanineffectiveorinappropriatemeansforthefulfillmentofthelegitimateobjectivespursuedbythememberwhosemeasureischallenged.In‘EC–Sar