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高等學(xué)校計(jì)算機(jī)公共課程“十三五”規(guī)劃教材

大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

陸軍主編

內(nèi)容簡介

計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)教育在大學(xué)教學(xué)內(nèi)容和教學(xué)目標(biāo)上已發(fā)生重大變革,特別是針對文、理科的學(xué)生,

缺乏工科學(xué)生的思維訓(xùn)練,該課程不僅讓學(xué)生全面了解計(jì)算機(jī)和計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用技能,還要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生

的計(jì)算思維能力,即培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用計(jì)算機(jī)解決問題的方法解決其他專業(yè)領(lǐng)域中的問題的能力和將計(jì)

算機(jī)應(yīng)用拓展到其他專業(yè)領(lǐng)域,并因此產(chǎn)生用計(jì)算機(jī)的新技術(shù)解決現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中尚未解決的問題的

能力。本書主要內(nèi)容包括計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維、Windows7操作系統(tǒng)、程序設(shè)計(jì)與軟件開發(fā)基

礎(chǔ)、Office2013辦公軟件的使用、計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)與信息安全、多媒體技術(shù)和數(shù)據(jù)庫技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)等內(nèi)容。

本書適合作為各類高等院校非計(jì)算機(jī)專業(yè)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)課程的教材。

圖書在版編目(CIP)數(shù)據(jù)

大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維/陸軍主編.—北京:

中國鐵道出版社有限公司,2019.8

高等學(xué)校計(jì)算機(jī)公共課程“十三五”規(guī)劃教材

ISBN978-7-113-26069-9

Ⅰ.①大…Ⅱ.①陸…Ⅲ.①電子計(jì)算機(jī)-高等

學(xué)校-教材Ⅳ.①TP3

中國版本圖書館CIP數(shù)據(jù)核字(2019)第162892號

書名:大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

作者:陸軍

策劃:潘晨曦編輯部電話2074

責(zé)任編輯:汪敏馮彩茹

封面設(shè)計(jì):劉穎

責(zé)任校對:張玉華

責(zé)任印制:郭向偉

出版發(fā)行:中國鐵道出版社有限公司(100054,北京市西城區(qū)右安門西街8號)

網(wǎng)址:/51eds/

印刷:三河市宏盛印務(wù)有限公司

版次:2019年8月第1版2019年8月第1次印刷

開本:787mm×1092mm1/16印張:22.5字?jǐn)?shù):562千

書號:ISBN978-7-113-26069-9

定價(jià):58.00元

版權(quán)所有侵權(quán)必究

凡購買鐵道版圖書,如有印制質(zhì)量問題,請與本社教材圖書營銷部聯(lián)系調(diào)換。電話:(010)63550836

打擊盜版舉報(bào)電話:(010)51873659

前言

計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)教育是大學(xué)新生入學(xué)以后所接觸到的第一門計(jì)算機(jī)學(xué)科知識教育,是大學(xué)基礎(chǔ)課

程之一,對于引導(dǎo)學(xué)生深入了解計(jì)算機(jī)常識、熟悉計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用、培養(yǎng)計(jì)算思維、助力專業(yè)技能教

育以及銜接后續(xù)信息技術(shù)課程等均具有非常重要的意義。為進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)高等學(xué)校計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)教育

的發(fā)展,教育部高等學(xué)校大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)課程教學(xué)指導(dǎo)委員會(huì)發(fā)布了《大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)課程教學(xué)基本

要求》(簡稱《基本要求》)?!痘疽蟆诽岢隽恕皩拰H凇钡恼n程體系,它也將“大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)”

這門通識型課程設(shè)置為必修課程。

本書是一本系統(tǒng)地介紹計(jì)算機(jī)工作原理、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用技能和計(jì)算思維能力的大學(xué)計(jì)

算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)課程的教材。本書共分7章,第1章介紹了計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)相關(guān)知識和計(jì)算思維的概念;第

2章介紹了Windows7操作系統(tǒng);第3章介紹了程序設(shè)計(jì)與軟件開發(fā)基礎(chǔ),包括程序設(shè)計(jì)、算法

與數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)基本概念以及C程序基本內(nèi)容;第4章介紹了Office2013辦公軟件的使用;第5章介

紹了網(wǎng)絡(luò)與信息安全相關(guān)的內(nèi)容;第6章介紹了多媒體技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)和Photoshop軟件基本應(yīng)用;第

7章簡要介紹數(shù)據(jù)庫技術(shù)的基本原理。

本書由陸軍主編。參與編寫的人員還有安德智、武光利、丁要軍、李燕、師晶晶、任文、

張琛、李振江、岳海云。

本書的編寫力求做到由淺入深、層次分明、概念清晰,案例涉及的知識點(diǎn)全面且實(shí)用。

由于編者水平有限,加之時(shí)間倉促,書中難免存在不足和疏漏之處,敬請廣大讀者批評指正。

編者

2019年于蘭州

目錄

第1章計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維·················12.3窗口、菜單與對話框的操作············53

1.1計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展史·································12.3.1認(rèn)識Windows窗口···················53

1.1.1計(jì)算工具的發(fā)展··························12.3.2Windows窗口的基本操作·········55

1.1.2早期計(jì)算機(jī)器的發(fā)展··················32.3.3窗口的排列·······························57

1.1.3電子計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展······················52.3.4菜單操作···································59

1.1.4微型計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展······················82.3.5對話框·······································59

1.2計(jì)算機(jī)的分類··································102.4文件與文件夾···································61

1.2.1特點(diǎn)與類型·······························102.4.1認(rèn)識文件與文件夾····················61

1.2.2大型計(jì)算機(jī)·······························112.4.2文件與文件夾的基本操作·········62

1.2.3微型計(jì)算機(jī)·······························132.4.3管理文件與文件夾····················66

1.2.4嵌入式系統(tǒng)·······························152.5Windows7用戶賬戶管理················72

1.3計(jì)算機(jī)的工作原理···························192.5.1創(chuàng)建用戶賬戶····························72

1.3.1信息編碼···································192.5.2刪除用戶賬戶····························73

1.3.2數(shù)據(jù)存儲···································212.5.3管理用戶賬戶····························74

1.3.3數(shù)據(jù)傳輸···································232.6中文輸入法······································75

1.3.4數(shù)據(jù)計(jì)算···································262.7附件的應(yīng)用······································77

1.3.5指令系統(tǒng)···································282.7.1計(jì)算器的應(yīng)用····························77

1.4計(jì)算思維的基本方法·······················292.7.2畫圖的應(yīng)用·······························78

1.4.1計(jì)算思維的基本特征················292.7.3記事本的基本操作····················80

1.4.2計(jì)算機(jī)如何解決問題················31第3章程序設(shè)計(jì)與軟件開發(fā)基礎(chǔ)···········83

1.4.3計(jì)算機(jī)不能解決的問題············323.1程序設(shè)計(jì)概述···································83

第2章中文Windows7操作系統(tǒng)··········343.1.1程序設(shè)計(jì)的風(fēng)格························83

2.1Windows7概述·······························343.1.2結(jié)構(gòu)化程序設(shè)計(jì)························85

2.1.1Windows7的版本介紹·············343.1.3面向?qū)ο蟪绦蛟O(shè)計(jì)····················86

2.1.2Windows7系統(tǒng)的安裝·············353.2算法概述··········································89

2.2Windows7桌面系統(tǒng)························393.2.1算法的基本概念························89

2.2.1鼠標(biāo)、鍵盤及指法練習(xí)············393.2.2算法的復(fù)雜度····························90

2.2.2桌面上的圖標(biāo)····························423.3數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)···································91

2.2.3桌面小工具·······························453.3.1數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)的基本概念················91

2.2.4任務(wù)欄和“開始”菜單············463.3.2線性表·······································93

2.2.5個(gè)性化設(shè)置·······························493.3.3?!ぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁぁ?5

3.3.4隊(duì)列···········································96

II大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

3.3.5樹與二叉樹·······························974.5.4插入文本框·····························152

3.3.6查找···········································994.5.5插入藝術(shù)字·····························153

3.3.7排序···········································994.5.6插入自選圖形··························153

3.4軟件工程基礎(chǔ)································1014.5.7SmartArt圖形功能··················154

3.4.1軟件工程的基本概念··············1014.5.8圖表·········································155

3.4.2結(jié)構(gòu)化分析方法······················1034.5.9插入公式與符號······················156

3.4.3結(jié)構(gòu)化設(shè)計(jì)方法······················1054.6頁面設(shè)置與文檔打印·····················157

3.4.4軟件測試及調(diào)試······················1074.6.1頁面設(shè)置·································157

3.5C語言設(shè)計(jì)基礎(chǔ)·····························1104.6.2頁眉頁腳·································159

3.5.1C語言簡介······························1104.6.3分節(jié)符和分頁符······················160

3.5.2變量與數(shù)據(jù)類型······················1114.6.4打印文檔·································161

3.5.3運(yùn)算符和表達(dá)式······················1154.6.5郵件合并·································162

3.5.4順序結(jié)構(gòu)·································1194.7Excel2013的基本知識··················162

3.5.5選擇結(jié)構(gòu)·································1224.7.1Excel2013窗口的組成···········162

3.5.6循環(huán)結(jié)構(gòu)·································1254.7.2Excel2013的基本概念

第4章Office2013·····························128及術(shù)語·····································163

4.8Excel2013的基本操作··················164

4.1Word2013文檔與窗口操作···········128

4.8.1工作簿的操作··························164

4.1.1Word2013的窗口介紹············128

4.8.2工作表的操作··························166

4.1.2Word2013的視圖模式介紹····132

4.8.3單元格的操作··························167

4.2文檔的基本操作·····························133

4.9數(shù)據(jù)的輸入····································170

4.2.1Word2013文檔的創(chuàng)建············133

4.9.1輸入方法·································170

4.2.2Word2013文檔編輯···············133

4.9.2各種類型數(shù)據(jù)的輸入技巧

4.2.3查找與替換·····························136

及其格式設(shè)置·························170

4.2.4顯示和隱藏格式標(biāo)記··············136

4.9.3自動(dòng)填充·································172

4.3文檔排版········································136

4.9.4快速填充(智能填充)···········176

4.3.1字體格式化·····························137

4.10美化制作的表格···························178

4.3.2段落格式化·····························138

4.10.1設(shè)置單元格格式····················178

4.3.3創(chuàng)建目錄·································140

4.10.2應(yīng)用單元格樣式····················183

4.3.4邊框和底紋·····························141

4.10.3表格樣式·······························184

4.3.5分欄設(shè)置·································142

4.10.4條件格式·······························185

4.3.6格式刷的使用··························142

4.10.5設(shè)置工作表標(biāo)簽顏色············187

4.4表格················································143

4.10.6應(yīng)用格式刷····························188

4.4.1插入表格·································143

4.11公式與函數(shù)···································188

4.4.2表格編輯·································144

4.11.1公式·······································188

4.5圖形圖片的編輯與處理·················149

4.11.2函數(shù)·······································194

4.5.1插入圖片·································149

4.12數(shù)據(jù)的管理··································200

4.5.2圖片處理·································150

4.12.1數(shù)據(jù)的排序····························200

4.5.3設(shè)置圖片文字的環(huán)繞方式·······151

目錄III

4.12.2數(shù)據(jù)的篩選···························2024.20演示文稿的打印和輸出················250

4.12.3數(shù)據(jù)的分類匯總····················2054.20.1設(shè)置頁面·······························250

4.12.4數(shù)據(jù)透視表和數(shù)據(jù)透視4.20.2打印演示文稿························250

視圖······································2064.20.3輸出演示文稿························251

4.13圖表的制作··································209第5章計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)與信息安全·············253

4.13.1圖表結(jié)構(gòu)與類型····················209

5.1計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的發(fā)展·························253

4.13.2創(chuàng)建圖表·······························210

5.1.1網(wǎng)絡(luò)的基本功能······················253

4.13.3編輯圖表·······························211

5.1.2網(wǎng)絡(luò)的主要類型······················255

4.14打印設(shè)置······································214

5.1.3因特網(wǎng)發(fā)展概況······················256

4.14.1設(shè)置打印區(qū)域························214

5.2計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)結(jié)構(gòu)·····························258

4.14.2設(shè)置打印標(biāo)題行····················216

5.2.1網(wǎng)絡(luò)通信協(xié)議··························258

4.15PowerPoint2013概述··················217

5.2.2網(wǎng)絡(luò)層次結(jié)構(gòu)··························260

4.15.1PowerPoint2013的啟動(dòng)

5.2.3網(wǎng)絡(luò)互連模型··························261

與退出···································217

5.2.4網(wǎng)絡(luò)服務(wù)模型··························262

4.15.2PowerPoint2013界面組成····217

5.3計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的組成·························264

4.15.3PowerPoint2013的主要

5.3.1拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)·································264

視圖方式·······························219

5.3.2傳輸介質(zhì)·································265

4.15.4新建演示文稿························221

5.3.3網(wǎng)絡(luò)設(shè)備·································267

4.15.5保存演示文稿························222

5.3.4網(wǎng)絡(luò)構(gòu)建·································268

4.16PowerPoint2013演示文稿的

5.4網(wǎng)絡(luò)地址及其應(yīng)用·························270

設(shè)置··············································222

5.4.1網(wǎng)絡(luò)地址·································270

4.16.1幻燈片編輯···························222

5.4.2域名系統(tǒng)·································272

4.16.2文本編輯·······························223

5.4.3因特網(wǎng)服務(wù)·····························273

4.16.3應(yīng)用版式·······························225

5.4.4HTML······································276

4.16.4應(yīng)用母版·······························226

5.5信息時(shí)代的安全隱患·····················277

4.16.5插入對象·······························227

5.5.1信息安全的主要威脅··············277

4.16.6編輯圖形·······························235

5.5.2信息系統(tǒng)不完善因素··············280

4.16.7編輯圖片·······························238

5.6信息系統(tǒng)的安全體系結(jié)構(gòu)··············282

4.17演示文稿的美化···························240

5.6.1信息安全的主要特征··············282

4.17.1設(shè)置幻燈片背景····················240

5.6.2信息安全的一般原則··············283

4.17.2設(shè)置主題·······························241

5.7計(jì)算機(jī)病毒及防護(hù)·························283

4.18演示文稿的動(dòng)畫功能···················243

5.7.1計(jì)算機(jī)病毒的定義··················283

4.18.1幻燈片切換···························243

5.7.2計(jì)算機(jī)病毒的表現(xiàn)··················284

4.18.2幻燈片動(dòng)畫效果····················244

5.7.3計(jì)算機(jī)病毒的防護(hù)··················287

4.19演示文稿的放映···························246

5.7.4惡意軟件的防治······················290

4.19.1放映方式·······························247

第章多媒體技術(shù)

4.19.2放映設(shè)置·······························2476······························292

4.19.3交互式放映···························2496.1多媒體技術(shù)概述·····························292

IV大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

6.1.1多媒體的基本概念··················2927.1.3數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)的特點(diǎn)··················326

6.1.2多媒體技術(shù)的特點(diǎn)··················2937.1.4數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)的內(nèi)部體系結(jié)構(gòu)···327

6.1.3多媒體信息的類型··················2947.1.5數(shù)據(jù)庫管理系統(tǒng)······················328

6.2數(shù)字聲音········································2947.2數(shù)據(jù)模型········································330

6.2.1聲音的特性·····························2947.2.1數(shù)據(jù)模型基本類型··················330

6.2.2聲音的數(shù)字化··························2957.2.2數(shù)據(jù)模型組成要素··················330

6.2.3常見的聲音文件格式··············2977.3E-R模型·········································331

6.3數(shù)字圖形圖像································2987.3.1E-R模型的基本概念···············331

6.3.1獲取圖像·································2987.3.2E-R模型的圖示法···················332

6.3.2位圖與矢量圖··························2987.4邏輯數(shù)據(jù)模型基本類型·················333

6.3.3圖像的顏色模型······················2997.7.1層次數(shù)據(jù)模型··························334

6.3.4圖像的數(shù)字化··························3007.7.2網(wǎng)狀數(shù)據(jù)模型··························334

6.3.5圖像文件格式··························3017.7.3關(guān)系數(shù)據(jù)模型··························334

6.4數(shù)據(jù)壓縮技術(shù)································3017.5關(guān)系數(shù)據(jù)庫····································335

6.4.1無損壓縮·································3027.5.1關(guān)系術(shù)語·································335

6.4.2有損壓縮·································3037.5.2關(guān)系的完整性··························336

6.5Photoshop圖像處理·······················3047.5.3關(guān)系運(yùn)算·································337

6.5.1Photoshop中的基本概念·········3057.5.4關(guān)系規(guī)范化·····························339

6.5.2新建、打開及保存圖像··········3067.6數(shù)據(jù)庫設(shè)計(jì)與管理·························344

6.5.3圖像屬性的設(shè)置與修改··········3077.6.1數(shù)據(jù)庫設(shè)計(jì)概述······················344

6.5.4圖像的變換與變形··················3087.6.2數(shù)據(jù)庫設(shè)計(jì)的需求分析···········344

6.5.5選區(qū)的創(chuàng)建與操作··················3107.6.3數(shù)據(jù)庫概念設(shè)計(jì)······················345

6.5.6修飾圖片·································3137.6.4數(shù)據(jù)庫的邏輯設(shè)計(jì)··················345

6.5.7調(diào)整圖像色彩··························3167.6.5數(shù)據(jù)庫的物理設(shè)計(jì)··················346

6.5.8文字處理·································3207.6.6數(shù)據(jù)庫管理·····························346

第7章數(shù)據(jù)庫技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)·······················3237.7Access2013概述···························346

7.7.1Access2013的功能及特性·····346

7.1數(shù)據(jù)庫基礎(chǔ)知識·····························323

7.7.2Access2013數(shù)據(jù)庫對象·········347

7.1.1計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)據(jù)管理的發(fā)展··········323

7.7.3表的設(shè)計(jì)·································348

7.1.2數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)基本概念··············325

第1章計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

計(jì)算機(jī)是一種由程序控制的信息處理工具,它能自動(dòng)、高速地對信息進(jìn)行存儲、傳送和處理。

計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,推動(dòng)了社會(huì)的發(fā)展與進(jìn)步,對人類社會(huì)的生產(chǎn)和生活產(chǎn)生了極其深刻的影響。

本章主要介紹計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展歷程、計(jì)算機(jī)的分類以及計(jì)算機(jī)的工作原理等。

1.1計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展史

計(jì)算技術(shù)的發(fā)展歷史是人類文明史的一個(gè)縮影。計(jì)算機(jī)的產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展經(jīng)歷了漫長的歷史過

程,在這個(gè)過程中,科學(xué)家們經(jīng)過艱難的探索,發(fā)明了各種各樣的計(jì)算機(jī),推動(dòng)了計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)的

發(fā)展。

1.1.1計(jì)算工具的發(fā)展

人類最早的計(jì)算工具也許是手指,當(dāng)然還可能包括腳趾,因?yàn)檫@些計(jì)算工具與生俱來,無須

任何輔助設(shè)施,具有天然優(yōu)勢。但是只能實(shí)現(xiàn)計(jì)數(shù),不能進(jìn)行存儲,而且局限于0~20以內(nèi)的

計(jì)算。

1.十進(jìn)制計(jì)數(shù)法

在古代世界的計(jì)數(shù)體系中,除了巴比倫文明的楔形數(shù)字為六十進(jìn)制、瑪雅文明為二十進(jìn)制外,

幾乎全部為十進(jìn)制。公元前3400年左右,古埃及已有基于十進(jìn)制的計(jì)數(shù)法,只不過這些十進(jìn)制計(jì)

數(shù)體系并沒有“位值”(數(shù)的位置不同,表示的值也不同)的概念。

中國在商朝(前1600—前1046)時(shí)已經(jīng)有了比較完備的文字計(jì)數(shù)系統(tǒng),在商代甲骨文中,已

經(jīng)有了一、二、三、四、五、六、七、八、九、十、百、千、萬這13個(gè)計(jì)數(shù)單字(見圖1-1),

可以記錄和計(jì)算十萬以內(nèi)的任何自然數(shù)。商代的一片甲骨文上可以看到將“547天”記為“五百

四旬又七日”的寫法,這是最早表明中國人使用十進(jìn)制計(jì)數(shù)法的典型例子。

圖1-1中國古代甲骨文上的數(shù)字(約公元前1500年)

中國周代(前1100—前256)的十進(jìn)制已經(jīng)有了明顯的位值概念。例如,西周金文“伐鬼方……

2大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

俘萬三千八十一人”“武王遂征四方,俘人三億萬有二百三十”“俘牛三百五十五”等,這里的“三”

和“五”等數(shù)字都具有位值計(jì)數(shù)的功能。春秋戰(zhàn)國時(shí)期,出現(xiàn)了嚴(yán)格的十進(jìn)位制算籌計(jì)數(shù)。

2.算籌

算籌是中國古代最早的計(jì)算工具之一。成語“運(yùn)籌帷幄”中的“籌”就是指算籌。南北

朝科學(xué)家祖沖之(429—500)借助算籌作為計(jì)算工具,成功地將圓周率計(jì)算到了小數(shù)點(diǎn)后第7位。

算籌在春秋戰(zhàn)國時(shí)已非常普遍。根據(jù)史書記載和考古材料的發(fā)現(xiàn),古代的算籌實(shí)際上是一些差不

多長短和粗細(xì)的小棍子,多用竹子制成,也有木頭、獸骨、象牙、金屬等材料。

3.九九乘法口訣

中國使用“九九乘法口訣”的時(shí)間較早,在《荀子》《管子》《戰(zhàn)國策》等書中,有“三九二

十七”“六八四十八”“四八三十二”“六六三十六”等句子。由此可見,早在春秋戰(zhàn)國時(shí),九九乘

法口訣已開始流行。九九乘法口訣廣泛用于算籌中進(jìn)行乘法、除法、開方等運(yùn)算,到明代則改良

并用在算盤上。如圖1-2所示,我國目前發(fā)現(xiàn)最早的九九乘法口訣表(簡稱“九九表”)實(shí)物是

2002年在湖南湘西里耶古城出土的秦簡,上面詳細(xì)記錄了九九乘法口訣。與今天乘法口訣不同的

是,秦簡上的九九表不是從“一一得一”開始,而是從“九九八十一”開始,到“二半而一”

結(jié)束。

圖1-2現(xiàn)存最古老的乘法口訣“九九表”木讀(前221—前206,秦)

后來,十進(jìn)位制位值概念和九九表傳入日本等東方國家。經(jīng)過絲綢之路西傳到印度、波斯,

繼而流行全世界。十進(jìn)制位值的概念和九九表是古代中國對世界文化的一項(xiàng)重要的貢獻(xiàn)。

九九表的算法特點(diǎn)有:只用一到九這9個(gè)數(shù)字。九九表包含了乘法的可交換性,因此只需要

“八九七十二”,不需要“九八七十二”。九九表只有45項(xiàng)口訣,而古代瑪雅人采用二十進(jìn)位制,

理論上乘法表有(19×20)/2=190項(xiàng)(目前無文物佐證);古巴比倫采用六十進(jìn)制,理論上乘法表

有(59×60)/2=1770項(xiàng);古埃及、古希臘、古羅馬、古印度等國,由于沒有“位值”的概念,因

此乘法表有無窮多項(xiàng)。在13世紀(jì)之前,歐洲人計(jì)算乘法、除法時(shí)十分辛苦,能夠除一個(gè)大數(shù)的人,

會(huì)被人視為數(shù)學(xué)專家。13世紀(jì)之初,中國的計(jì)算方法通過阿拉伯人傳入歐洲,歐洲人才學(xué)習(xí)到這

種先進(jìn)的計(jì)算技術(shù)。

4.算盤

算盤是中國古代的重要計(jì)算工具,在世界計(jì)算工具的發(fā)展中具有非常重要的地位。美國加州

計(jì)算機(jī)歷史博物館展廳的入口處就放置了一個(gè)大算盤。從計(jì)算的角度來看,算盤的進(jìn)步主要體現(xiàn)

在兩點(diǎn):一是有一套完整的算法規(guī)則,如“三下五去二”;二是具有存儲功能,能連續(xù)進(jìn)行運(yùn)算。

中國的穿珠算盤起源于何時(shí),至今未有定論。珠算一詞最早見于東漢時(shí)期徐岳的《數(shù)術(shù)記遺》

第1章計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維3

(168—188),書中有“珠算控帶四時(shí),經(jīng)緯三才”(注:三才指天、地、人),后來北周數(shù)學(xué)家甄

鸞對這段文字作了注釋,稱“刻板為三分,其上下二分以停游珠,中間一分以定算位(見圖1-3)。

位各五珠,上一珠與下四珠色別,其上別色之珠當(dāng)五,其下四珠,珠各當(dāng)一。至下四珠所領(lǐng),故

云‘控帶四時(shí)’。其珠游于三方之中,故云‘經(jīng)緯三才’也”。這些文字被認(rèn)為是最早的關(guān)于珠算

的記載。北宋畫家張擇端《清明上河圖》長卷中,在“趙太丞家”藥鋪柜臺上,有一個(gè)十五檔的

算盤。經(jīng)中日兩國珠算專家將畫面攝影放大,確認(rèn)畫中之物是與現(xiàn)代使用算盤形制類似的穿珠

算盤。

圖1-3中國漢代游珠算盤(復(fù)原圖)和宋代張擇端《清明上河圖》中的算盤(1101年)

1.1.2早期計(jì)算機(jī)器的發(fā)展

算盤作為主要的計(jì)算工具流行了相當(dāng)長的一段時(shí)間,直到中世紀(jì),歐洲哲學(xué)家們提出了一個(gè)

大膽的問題:能否用機(jī)械來實(shí)現(xiàn)人腦活動(dòng)的個(gè)別功能?最初的目的并不是制造計(jì)算機(jī),而是試圖

從某個(gè)前提出發(fā),機(jī)械地得出正確的結(jié)論,即思維機(jī)器的制造。

1.機(jī)器計(jì)算的萌芽

1275年,西班牙神學(xué)家雷蒙德·露利(R.Lullus)發(fā)明了一種稱為“旋轉(zhuǎn)玩具”的思維機(jī)器。

在旋轉(zhuǎn)玩具中,數(shù)值可以由圓盤的旋轉(zhuǎn)角度表示,數(shù)字的正、負(fù)可以由轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)方向確定。旋轉(zhuǎn)玩具

引起了許多著名學(xué)者的研究興趣,最終導(dǎo)致了能進(jìn)行簡單數(shù)學(xué)運(yùn)算的計(jì)算機(jī)器的產(chǎn)生。數(shù)學(xué)家笛

卡兒(ReneDescartes,1596—1650)曾經(jīng)預(yù)言:“總有一天,人類會(huì)造出一些舉止與人一樣的‘沒

有靈魂的機(jī)械’來”。

1623年,德國的契克卡德(WilhelmSchickard)教授在給他的朋友天文學(xué)家開普勒(Kepler)

的一封信中,設(shè)計(jì)了一種能做四則運(yùn)算的機(jī)器,但是這種機(jī)器沒有實(shí)物作為佐證。

2.帕斯卡加法器

1642年,法國數(shù)學(xué)家帕斯卡(BlaisePascal,1623—1662)制造了第一臺能進(jìn)行6位十進(jìn)制加

法運(yùn)算的機(jī)器(見圖1-4)。帕斯卡加法器由一系列齒輪組成,利用發(fā)條作為動(dòng)力裝置。帕斯卡加

法器主要的發(fā)明在于:某一位小齒輪或軸完成了10個(gè)數(shù)字的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),才使下一個(gè)齒輪轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)一個(gè)數(shù)字,

從而解決了機(jī)器計(jì)算的自動(dòng)進(jìn)位問題。

圖1-4帕斯卡發(fā)明的加法器和它的內(nèi)部齒輪結(jié)構(gòu)(1642年)

4大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

3.萊布尼茨的二進(jìn)制思想

1673年,德國數(shù)學(xué)家萊布尼茨(GottfriedWilhelmLeibniz,1646—1716)在帕斯卡加法器的

思想和工作的影響下,制造了能進(jìn)行簡單加、減、乘、除的計(jì)算機(jī)器。機(jī)器的關(guān)鍵部件是梯形軸,

即齒長不同的圓柱,第一次實(shí)現(xiàn)了帶有可變齒數(shù)的齒輪,這種數(shù)字齒輪保證了乘除法的進(jìn)行。

1679年萊布尼茨發(fā)明了一種算法,用兩個(gè)數(shù)(1和0)代替原來的10個(gè)數(shù)。1701年他寫信給

在北京的神父閔明我(Grimaldi)和白晉(Bouvet),告知自己的新發(fā)明,希望能引起他心目中“算

術(shù)愛好者”康熙皇帝的興趣。但是,關(guān)于這個(gè)神奇的數(shù)字系統(tǒng),萊布尼茨只有幾頁異常精練的描

述,沒有建立一個(gè)完整的二進(jìn)制數(shù)計(jì)算的理論體系。

4.巴貝奇的自動(dòng)計(jì)算機(jī)器

1822年,英國劍橋大學(xué)著名數(shù)學(xué)家巴貝奇(CharlesBabbage,1792—1871)設(shè)計(jì)了差分機(jī)和

分析機(jī)(見圖1-5)。巴貝奇的目標(biāo)是制作一臺可以計(jì)算多項(xiàng)式的“差分機(jī)”(加法機(jī)),用于快速

編制對數(shù)、三角函數(shù)以及其他算術(shù)函數(shù)的數(shù)學(xué)用表。他整整用了10年時(shí)間,于1822年完成了第

一臺差分機(jī),它可以處理3個(gè)不同的5位數(shù),計(jì)算精度為6位數(shù)字,可以演算出好幾種函數(shù)表。

圖1-5巴貝奇發(fā)明的差分機(jī)和分析機(jī)復(fù)制品模型(1822年)

差分機(jī)由以前每次只能完成一次算術(shù)運(yùn)算,發(fā)展為自動(dòng)完成某個(gè)特定的完整運(yùn)算過程以后,

巴貝奇又設(shè)計(jì)了一種程序控制的通用分析機(jī)。這種分析機(jī)由3部分構(gòu)成:第1部分是保存數(shù)據(jù)的

齒輪式寄存器,巴貝奇稱為“堆?!保c差分機(jī)類似,但計(jì)算不在寄存器內(nèi)進(jìn)行,而是由新的機(jī)

構(gòu)來實(shí)現(xiàn);第2部分是對數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行各種運(yùn)算的裝置,巴貝奇命名為“工場”;第3部分是對操作順

序進(jìn)行控制,并對所要處理的數(shù)據(jù)及輸出結(jié)果加以選擇的裝置。為了加快運(yùn)算的速度,巴貝奇設(shè)

計(jì)了先進(jìn)的進(jìn)位機(jī)構(gòu)。他估計(jì)使用分析機(jī)完成一次50位數(shù)的加減法只要1s,相乘則要1min。同

時(shí),在多年的研究制造實(shí)踐中,巴貝奇寫出了世界上第一部關(guān)于計(jì)算機(jī)程序的專著。分析機(jī)是現(xiàn)

代程序控制計(jì)算機(jī)的雛型,設(shè)計(jì)理論非常超前,但限于當(dāng)時(shí)的技術(shù)條件而未能最終形成產(chǎn)品。

5.愛達(dá)與程序設(shè)計(jì)

愛達(dá)(AugustaAdaByron,1815—1852)是著名英國詩人拜倫之女,她對數(shù)學(xué)有極高的興趣。

1842年,愛達(dá)花了9個(gè)月時(shí)間翻譯意大利數(shù)學(xué)家米那比亞(LuigiMenabrea)論述巴貝奇著作《分

析機(jī)概論》的備忘錄。在愛達(dá)的譯文中,她附加了許多注記,詳細(xì)說明了用計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行伯努利數(shù)

的運(yùn)算方式,這被認(rèn)為是世界上第一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)程序,因此,愛達(dá)也被認(rèn)為是世界上第一位程序設(shè)

計(jì)師。巴貝奇在他的著作《經(jīng)過哲學(xué)家的人生》中講到:“我認(rèn)為她(譯注:愛達(dá))為米那比亞的

備忘錄增加了許多注記,并加入了一些想法。雖然這些想法是由我們一起討論出來的,但是最后

寫進(jìn)注記中的想法確確實(shí)實(shí)是她自己的構(gòu)想。我將許多代數(shù)運(yùn)算的問題交給她處理,這些工作與

第1章計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維5

伯努利數(shù)的運(yùn)算相關(guān)。在她送回給我的文件中,修正了我先前在程序中的重大錯(cuò)誤”。

愛達(dá)在文章中創(chuàng)造出了許多巴貝奇也未曾提到的新構(gòu)想,例如,愛達(dá)曾經(jīng)預(yù)言:“這個(gè)機(jī)器

未來可以用來排版、編曲或是各種更復(fù)雜的用途?!睈圻_(dá)建立了循環(huán)和子程序的概念,為計(jì)算程序

擬定過算法,寫作了第一份“程序設(shè)計(jì)流程圖”。

6.布爾與數(shù)理邏輯

英國數(shù)學(xué)家布爾(G.Boole,1815—1864)的第一部著作是《邏輯的數(shù)學(xué)分析》。1854年,布

爾再次出版了《思維規(guī)律的研究——邏輯與概率的數(shù)學(xué)理論基礎(chǔ)》。憑借這兩部著作,布爾建立了

一門新的數(shù)學(xué)學(xué)科:布爾代數(shù)。布爾代數(shù)建立了一個(gè)完整的二進(jìn)制數(shù)計(jì)算理論體系。

現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)理論的一個(gè)基本要求是所有信息都可用符號編碼,而最簡單的編碼是采用二進(jìn)

制。我們平時(shí)接觸的各種復(fù)雜事物的信息都可以用簡單的0、1表示嗎?就算是表示出來了又通過

哪種方式進(jìn)行運(yùn)算,得到想要的結(jié)果?布爾完成了這項(xiàng)偉大的工作,他將人類的邏輯思維簡化為

一些二進(jìn)制數(shù)學(xué)運(yùn)算(布爾代數(shù)),發(fā)明了用二進(jìn)制語言描寫和處理各種邏輯命題。雖然計(jì)算機(jī)科

學(xué)的發(fā)展,證明了布爾代數(shù)的意義重大,但當(dāng)時(shí)布爾的工作并沒有得到充分的重視。

1.1.3電子計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展

現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)是指利用電子技術(shù)代替機(jī)械或機(jī)電技術(shù)的計(jì)算機(jī),現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)經(jīng)歷了70多年的

發(fā)展,其中最重要的代表人物有英國科學(xué)家圖靈(AlanMathisonTuring,1912—1954)和美籍匈

牙利科學(xué)家馮·諾依曼(JohnvonNeumann,1903—1957),他們(見圖1-6)為現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)

的發(fā)展奠定了基礎(chǔ)。

圖靈馮·諾依曼

圖1-6為現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)的發(fā)展奠定基礎(chǔ)的杰出科學(xué)家

1.圖靈與人工智能

1936年,圖靈在他具有劃時(shí)代意義的論文《論可計(jì)算數(shù)及其在判定問題中的應(yīng)用》中,論述

了一種理想的通用計(jì)算機(jī),被后人稱為“圖靈機(jī)”。1950年,圖靈發(fā)表了另一篇著名論文《計(jì)算

機(jī)器與智能》,論文指出,如果一臺機(jī)器對于質(zhì)問的響應(yīng)與人類做出的響應(yīng)完全無法區(qū)別,那么這

臺機(jī)器就具有智能。這一論斷稱為圖靈測試,它奠定了人工智能的理論基礎(chǔ)。

圖靈并不只是一位純粹的抽象數(shù)學(xué)家,他還是一位擅長電子技術(shù)的工程專家。他設(shè)計(jì)制造的

破譯機(jī)Bombe(炸彈)實(shí)質(zhì)上是一臺采用繼電器的高速計(jì)算裝置。圖靈以獨(dú)特的思想創(chuàng)造的破譯

機(jī),一次次成功地破譯了德國法西斯的密碼電文。

馮·諾依曼生前曾多次謙虛地說:“如果不考慮查爾斯·巴貝奇等人早先提出的有關(guān)思想,現(xiàn)

6大學(xué)計(jì)算機(jī)基礎(chǔ)與計(jì)算思維

代計(jì)算機(jī)的概念當(dāng)屬于阿蘭·圖靈?!庇纱丝梢姡瑘D靈對計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)影響巨大。為了紀(jì)念圖靈的杰

出貢獻(xiàn),美國計(jì)算機(jī)協(xié)會(huì)(ACM)專門設(shè)立了圖靈獎(jiǎng),它是計(jì)算機(jī)學(xué)術(shù)界的最高成就獎(jiǎng)。

2.第一臺現(xiàn)代電子數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)ABC

第一臺現(xiàn)代電子數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)是ABC(Atanasoff-BerryComputer,阿塔納索夫-貝瑞計(jì)算機(jī)),

它是美國愛荷華州立大學(xué)物理系副教授阿塔納索夫(JohnVincentAtanasoff)和他的研究生克利福

特·貝瑞(CliffordBerry)在1939年10月研制成功的(見圖1-7)。1990年,阿塔納索夫獲得了

全美最高科技獎(jiǎng)“國家科技獎(jiǎng)”。

圖1-7第一臺現(xiàn)代電子數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)ABC復(fù)制品和設(shè)計(jì)草圖(1939年)

ABC計(jì)算機(jī)采用二進(jìn)制電路進(jìn)行運(yùn)算;存儲系統(tǒng)采用不斷充電的電容器,具有數(shù)據(jù)記憶功能;

輸入系統(tǒng)采用了IBM公司的穿孔卡片;輸出系統(tǒng)采用高壓電弧燒孔卡片。

阿塔納索夫提出了現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)最重要的3個(gè)基本原則:

①以二進(jìn)制的方式實(shí)現(xiàn)數(shù)字運(yùn)算和邏輯運(yùn)算,以保證運(yùn)算精度。

②利用電子技術(shù)實(shí)現(xiàn)控制和運(yùn)算,以保證運(yùn)算速度。

③采用計(jì)算功能與存儲功能的分離結(jié)構(gòu),以簡化計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)。

3.ENIAC計(jì)算機(jī)

1943年,第二次世界大戰(zhàn)時(shí)期,美國因新式火炮彈道計(jì)算需要運(yùn)算速度更快的計(jì)算機(jī)。賓夕

法尼亞大學(xué)莫爾學(xué)院36歲的物理學(xué)家莫克利(JohnMauchly)教授和他24歲的學(xué)生??颂兀≒resper

Eckert)博士,向軍方代表戈德斯坦提交了一份研制ENIAC計(jì)算機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)方案,軍方提供了48

萬美元的經(jīng)費(fèi)資助。1946年2月,莫克利成功地研制出了ENIAC計(jì)算機(jī)。ENIAC采用了18000

多個(gè)電子管,10000多個(gè)電容器,7000個(gè)電阻,1500多個(gè)繼電器,功率為150kW,質(zhì)量達(dá)30t,

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