邏輯bible筆記中文版

放置一個具有高度迷惑性的選項在正確選項前，這樣能驅使你去看每一個選項。CriticalReasoningBible放置一個具有高度迷惑性的選項在正確選項前，這樣能驅使你去看每一個選項。CriticalReasoningBibleChapter2&3BasicBasically,GMATcriticalreasoningstimulushastwotypes:anargumentorasetoffactualTodealwithstimulus,therearethreeMakeaquickanalysisofthetopicunderReadtheentirestimulusveryAnalyzethestructureoftheBasedonthesesteps,thereareseveralprimaryobjectiveswhenreadingObjective1:DeterminewhetherthestimuluscontainsanargumentoronlyasetoffactualDifference:Thelackofastrongreactionisoftenanindicationthatyouarenotreadinganargumentandareinsteadreadingjustasetoffacts.PremiseIndicators(前提標志詞Because/since/for/forexample/forthereasonthat/asindicatedby/dueto/owingto/thiscanbeseenfrom/weknowthisby…ConclusionIndicators(結論標志詞Thus/therefore/hence/consequently/asaresult/so/accordingly//mustbethat/showsthat/concludethat/followsthat/forthisN+.thus Nsince后面的都是前提，thuspremiseIfthestimuluscontainsafactsetexamineeachfact.Therefore,since..….,結論Thusbecause.…,Hence,due ,結論Whenreading,alwaysbeawareofthepresenceofthewordslisted一旦找到結論，必須馬上鎖定一旦找到結論，必須馬上鎖定。在確定結論之后才能看問題和選項。如果原文中包含完整論證，找出結論；如果原文中只包含事實，仔細檢查每個事實TheorganizationofanEachstimulusiscompromisedbyvariousparts:Premise,Conclusion,AdditionalPremise,Counter-Premiseandsoon.①Theconclusionisdrawnbasedonpremises(Maybeonepremiseoranumberofpremises).Soitiscrucialtorecognizewhatistheconclusionandwhatisthepremise.Theremayexistsomeconfusingformsintheargument.②AdditionalPremiseIndicators:Furthermore,Moreover,Besides,In,,,Sometimestheauthorwillmakeanargumentandthenforgoodmeasureaddanotherthatsupportstheconclusionbutissometimesnon-essentialtothe附加前提有時候是不重要的（不需要這個前提，論述也可成立though,Whereas,Despite,Afterall,Thegeneralcounter-premiseconceptdiscussesanidealthatissomewaydifferentfromanotherpartoftheargument.But,byraisingcounter-premises,theauthorcanminimizetheobjectionsthatmayoccuragainsthis/herownconclusion.反對前提可以使對結論的反對意見程度當原文沒有只指示詞時，這時候假定一個句子是前提，另一個是結論，然后自己加上因果系詞，因為前提，所以結看看是否符合邏輯。如果不符合，那么就倒過Theseargumentscontainmorethanoneconclusion.Intheseinstances,oneoftheconclusionsisthemainconclusion,andtheotherconclusionsaresubsidiaryconclusions.Sometimes,2opposingviewmayexistinoneargument.(SuchasConversationTheseargumentscontainwordssuchas“however,but”.Thedifferencebetween我們會在第十章看到的：一個常見 復雜論述的形式.這個形式將會誘導你去把第二個結論當做主結論2．發(fā)生在兩個說話人中，這樣出題人可以再問你多種多樣的的問題。OneImportantPrinciple:Orderofpresentationhasnoeffectonthelogicalstructureoftheargument.Theconclusioncanappearatthebeginning,themiddle,ortheendoftheObjective3:Ifthestimuluscontainsanargument,determinewhethertheargumentis2．發(fā)生在兩個說話人中，這樣出題人可以再問你多種多樣的的問題。OneImportantPrinciple:Orderofpresentationhasnoeffectonthelogicalstructureoftheargument.Theconclusioncanappearatthebeginning,themiddle,ortheendoftheObjective3:Ifthestimuluscontainsanargument,determinewhethertheargumentisorWhatiscrucialherearethehiddenassumptions.Thecontextofpremisescouldneverbetreatedasuntrue,butthelineofreasoningmaynotbevalid.So,thehiddenassumptionsplaycrucialroleinthelineofreasoning.Objective4:Readcloselyandknowpreciselywhattheauthorsaid.DonotPayattentiontoQuantityIndicators&ProbabilityQuantityIndicators：all,every.most,many,some,several,sole,only,notall,ProbabilityIndicators.must,will,always,notalways,probably,likely,would,necessarily,could，rarely,neverObjective5:Carefullyreadandidentifythequestionstem.Donotassumethatcertainwordsareautomaticallyassociatedwithcertainquestiontypes.MUSTBE/一定為幫削Mustbetrue/MostMainpoint/MainStrengthen/MethodofResolvetheFlawintheAssumptions:Thingsthatareassumedtobetruebeforereachingtheconclusion.(Orwecansaythingsthatareassumedtobetrueinthelineofreasoning.)Inferences:Thingsthatmustbetrueonthebasisoftheargument.Thatisthingsthatcanandwillbedrawnbasedontheargumentgiven.*EvaluatetheArgumentHELPHURT第一FAMILY:MUSTBE/PROVE題正確選項中不得出現原文中沒有的新信Stimuls是被接*EvaluatetheArgumentHELPHURT第一FAMILY:MUSTBE/PROVE題正確選項中不得出現原文中沒有的新信Stimuls是被接受的，即使它含有推理的缺第二類 第三類 **只有兩種類型的題目在原文中沒有結論MUSTBETRUERESOLVETHEWeaken,Mustbetrue,Assumption,Strengthen,MainPoint,MethodofReasoning,FlawintheReasoning,ParallelReasoning,EvaluatetheArgumentQuestion1.Mustbetrue/Most3.5.Resolvethe7.Methodof9.Parallel2.Main4.Strengthen/6.8.Flawinthe10.EvaluatetheAllquestiontypesarevariationsofthreemainquestion“families”,andeachfamilyiscomprisedquestiontypesthataresimilartoeachStimulus→AnswerFamily#1:Family#2:Family#3:Type:1,2,7,8,Type:3,4,AnswerAnswerThearrowsrepresenttheflowofinformation:OnepartoftheproblemissimplyacceptedandotherpartisTheFirstTheSecondTheThird1.Youmustacceptthestimulusinformation-evenifitcontainsanerrorofreasoning-anduseittoprovethatoneoftheanswerchoicesmustbetrue.1.Theinformationinthestimulusissuspect.Thereareoftenreasoningerrorspresent,anddependingonthequestion,youwillhelpshoreuptheargumentinsomeway.1.Theinformationinthestimulussuspect.Thereareoftenreasoninerrorpresent,andyouwillfurthweakentheargumentinsomeway.Parallelobjective6:Prephase:Afterreadingthequestionstem,takeaobjective6:Prephase:Afterreadingthequestionstem,takeamomenttomentallyformulateyouranswertothequestionstem.stimulus的，而且會幫你快速排出錯誤選項，通常情況下你預測的也是正確選項。Objective7:Alwaysreadeachofthefiveanswer5個選Objective8:SeparatetheanswerchoicesintoContendersandLosers.Aftercompletingthisprocess,reviewtheContendersanddecidewhichansweristhecorrect你迷惑的，或者有吸引里力的選項，分為這樣做可以平均每道邏輯題剩下30秒，不要小看這30秒。GMAT的一個真理是：littlethingsmakeabigdifferenceObjective9:IfallfiveanswerchoicesappeartobeLosers,returntothestimulusandre-evaluatetheargument.Note：當你做完一道題的時候，點完確認ta馬上拋之腦后，千萬不要去想，否則很容易使你分心，而且很可能會讓你做錯下一道題，這就GMAT的陷阱，這不僅是一個考能力的考試，還是一個考心理素質的你不會的別人也不一定會，但別人不會你很可能會。永遠記住這句Chapter4MustbeTrueOG:26.31,33,56,Youmustlockdowntheunderstandingrequiredofthisquestioncategory:whatdidyoureadinthestimulusandwhatdoyouknowonthebasisofthatreading?2.Anyinformationinananswerchoicethatdoesnotappeareitherdirectlyinthestimulusorasacombinationofitemsinthestimuluswillbeincorrect.2.Theanswerchoicesareacceptedasgiven,eveniftheyinclude“new”information.Yourtaskistodeterminewhichanswerchoicebestmeetsthequestionposedinthestem.2.Theanswerchoicesaregiven,eveniftheyinclude“newinformation.Yourtaskistodetermiwhichanswerchoicebestattackstargumentinthestimulus.P.s.Oftenweseeinquestion“Theinformationabove,iftrue,P.s.Often,weseeinquestion“Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,…all,most,many,could,canHighlyall,most,many,could,canHighlyAttention:Numbers&Percentage,ProbabilityIndicators,Modifier(Differencesbetween“many,all,entirely,most,Youcannotbringininformationfromoutsidethestimulustoanswerthequestions;alloftheinformationnecessarytoanswerthequestionresidesinthestimulus.ThecorrectanswertoaMustBeTruequestioncanalwaysbeprovenbyreferringtothefactssatedintheCorrectAnswersinMustbeTrue1.ParaphrasedParaphrasedAnswersareanswersthatrestateaportionofthestimulusindifferentterms.Becausethelanguageisnotexactlythesameasinthestimulus,ParaphrasedAnswerscanbeeasytomiss.ParaphrasedAnswersaredesignedtotestyourabilitytodiscerntheauthor’sexactmeaning.Sometimestheanswercanappeartobealmosttooobvioussinceitisdrawndirectlyfromthestimulus.2.Answersthatarethesumoftwoormorestimulusstatement(CombinationAnyanswerchoicethatwouldresultfromcombiningtwoormorestatementsinstimuluswillbeIncorrectAnswersinMustbeTrue1.CouldbeTrueorLikelytobeTrueTheseanswersareattractivebecausethereisnothingdemonstrablywrongwithinthem.Regardless,likeallincorrectanswers,theseanswersfailtheFactTest.ExaggeratedAnswerstakeinformationfromthestimulusandthenstretchthatinformationtomakeabroadenstatementthatisnotsupportedbythestimulus.3.“New”InformationNewInformationAnswersincludeinformationnotexplicitlymentionedinthestimulus.Becarefulwiththeseanswers,becausesometimestheymaybecorrect:First,examinethescopeoftheargumenttomakesurethe“new”informationdoesnotfallwithinthesphereofatermorconceptinthestimulusThiscategoryofincorrectanswerisverybroad,andsomeofthetypesmentionedbelowwillfallunderthisgeneralideabutplaceanemphasisonaspecificaspectoftheanswers.Second,examinetheanswertomakesureitSecond,examinetheanswertomakesureitisnottheconsequenceofcombiningstimulus.Anideaorconceptisraisedinthestimulus,andthenaverysimilarideaappearsinanswerchoice,buttheideaischangedjustenoughtobeincorrectbutstillanswersTheOppositeAnswerprovidesananswerthatiscompletelyoppositeofthestatedfactsthe6TheReverseAnswer調換原文中的兩個詞的位置（ReverseTheReverseAnswerisattractivebecauseitcontainsfamiliarelementsfromthebutthereversedstatementisincorrectbecauseitrearrangesthoseelementstocreateanew,unsupportedstatement.不同可以用于排除錯誤答案（即錯誤答案有時會將他人觀點當作事實,Chapter5MainPointOg:,ThecentraltruthofMainPointLikeallMustbeTrueQuestions,thecorrectanswermustpasstheFactTest,butwiththeadditionalcriterionthatthecorrectanswerchoicemustcapturetheauthor’spoint. Manypeoplehavesometypeofsecuritysystemintheirhomes.ReverseAnswer:Somepeoplehavemanytypesofsecuritysystemintheirhomes.Capturetheauthor’sconclusionwhenCapturetheauthor’sconclusionwhenreadingtheTwoincorrectanswerAnswersthataretruebutdonotencapsulatetheauthor’sAnswersthatrepeatpremisesofthe錯誤答案Youmustisolatetheconclusionandthenlookforaparaphraseofthatconclusion.ManyMainPointquestionstimuliavoidusingtraditionalconclusionindicatorsandthislackofargumentindicator“guideposts”makesyourtaskmoreRemember,ifyouarestrugglingtoidentifytheconclusioninanargument,youalwaysusethemethodologyRecognizethedifferencesbetweenMainPointandMustBeTrueThemainpointoftheargumentaboveisWhichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressestheeditor’sWhichofthefollowingbestsummarizestheconclusionoftheTheauthorhopestoprovewhichoftheTheargumentseemstoleaduptowhichoftheWhichofthefollowingistheauthor’smainMustBeTruequestionstemsappearinavarietyofformats,butoneorbothofthefeaturesdescribedbelowappearconsistently:1.Thestemoftenindicatestheinformationinthestimulusshouldbetakenastrue,PromptforMain 題干中已經存在結論，選項只是重述結論 邏輯含義是，面那個選項將很好的描述作者的觀點，作者的觀點已經存在，你只需找出他，進行重述Takethestatementsunderconsiderationfortheconclusionandplacetheminanarrangementthatforcesonetobetheconclusionandtheother(s)tobethepremise(s).Usepremiseandconclusionindicatorstoachievethisend.Oncethepiecesarearranged,determineifthearrangementmakeslogicalsense.Ifso,youhavemadethecorrectidentification.Ifnot,reversethearrangementandexaminetherelationshipagain.Continueuntilyoufindanarrangementthatislogical.“Ifthestatementsaboveare“Ifthestatementsabovearetrue...”“Thestatementsabove,iftrue...”“IftheinformationaboveisThistypeofphrasehelpsindicatethatyouaredealingwithaFirstFamilyquestion2.Thestemasksyoutoidentifyasingleanswerchoicethatisprovenorsupported,as“...whichoneofthefollowingmustalsobe“...whichoneofthefollowingconclusionscanbeproperlydrawnonthebasisofit?”“...moststronglysupportwhichoneofthefollowing?”“WhichoneofthefollowingcanbeproperlyIneachcase,thequestionstemindicatesthatoneoftheanswerchoicesisprovenbytheinformationinthestimulus.PromptforMustBe也有可能論同于mainpoint，這里讓你自己歸納作者的觀點；邏輯含義是，下面哪個‘事實’或者‘結論’被上面的信息所支持，有可能是“Ifthestatementsabovearetrue,whichoneofthefollowingmustalsobetrue?”“Iftheinformationaboveiscorrect,whichoneofthefollowingconclusionscanbeproperlydrawnonthebasisofit?”“Thestatementsabove,iftrue,moststronglysupportwhichoneofthefollowing?”“Whichoneofthefollowingcanbeproperlyinferredfromthepassage?”“WhichoneofthefollowingismoststronglysupportedbytheinformationChapter6WeakenInadditiontothePrimaryObjectives,keepthefollowingrulesinmindwhenapproachingWeakenQuestions:1Thestimuluswillcontainanargumentweaken題原文中必須出現結論，因此判Becauseyouareaskedtoweakentheauthor’sreasoning,andreasoningrequiresaconclusion,anargumentwillalwaysbepresent.Inordertomaximizeyourchancesofsuccess,youmustidentify,isolate,andassessthepremisesandtheconclusionoftheargument.Onlybyunderstandingthestructureoftheargumentcanyougaintheperspectivenecessarytoattacktheauthor’s2Focusontheconclusion.AlmostallcorrectWeakenanswerchoicesimpacttheconclusion.Themoreyouknowaboutthespecificsoftheconclusion,thebetterarmedyouwillbetodifferentiatebetweencorrectandincorrectanswers.3Theinformationinthestimulusissuspect.Thereareoftenreasoningerrorspresent,andyoumustreadtheargumentvery原文中本沒有結論，這里選項中有可能是事4Weakenquestionsoftenyield4WeakenquestionsoftenyieldstrongprephraseWeaken題經常需要用到預測Besuretoactivelyconsidertherangeofpossibleanswersbeforeproceedingtoanswer5.Theanswerchoicesareacceptedasgiven,eveniftheyincludenewinformation.要默認UnlikeMustbeTrueQuestions,Weakenanswerchoicescanbringintoconsiderationinformationoutsideofortangentialtothestimulus.Justbecauseafactorideaisnotmentionedinthestimulusisnotgroundsfordismissingananswerchoice.YourprimarytaskistowhichanswerchoicebestattackstheargumentintheAnswersthatweakentheargument’sconclusionwillattackassumptionsmadebytheauthor.Typically,theauthorwillfailtoconsiderotherpossibilitiesorleaveoutakeypieceofinformation.Inthissense,theauthorassumesthattheseelementsdonotexistwhenheorshemakestheconclusion,andifyouseeagaporholeintheargument,immediatelyconsiderthatthecorrectanswermightattackthisThreeincorrectanswer1.OppositeWeaken2．ShellGame3.OutofScopeIncompleteInformationTheauthorfailstoconsiderallofthepossibilities,orreliesuponevidencethatisincomplete.Thisflawcanbeattackedbybringingupnewpossibilitiesorinformation.ImproperComparisonFalseanalogy:TheauthorattemptstocomparetwoormoreitemsthatareessentiallyQualified TheauthorqualifiesorlimitstheconclusioninsuchawayastoleavetheargumentopentoWeakenFamily3:AnswerChoice→OG:1，15,23,30,35,36,40,45,60,Howtoweakenan1.the2the1.Primary①Carefullyreadthestimulus,findtheargument,andpayattentiontothe②Focusontheconclusion(Thespecificsoftheconclusion),andusethearrowtodrawthelineofreasoning③PrephasethestimulusbyfindingtheGAP:Activelyinvolvedinevery④Accepttheanswersasthewaytheyaregiven,eveniftheyinclude“new”Choosetheanswerthatmayforcetheauthortomakeresponsetowardsyouranswer2.Theincorrectanswer①OppositeAnswers:Neverforgetthatyouaremeanttoweakenthe②ShellGameAnswers:PayattentiontothespecificsoftheIftheyaskyouabout“Schooldropouts”,neverchoosetheanswerconcerning“Schoolgraduates”.Likewise,iftheyaskyouabout“塑料怎么會讓動物窒息”,neverchoosetheanswerconcerning“動物吃了塑料會中毒”(Meetandrecitewords.)③OutofScopeAnswers:Again,③OutofScopeAnswers:Again,payattentiontothespecificsofthe3.Typesof①Premise&ConclusionNocause&effectreasoning)Findtheanswerchoicethatdirectlyweakenstheconclusion.(Theanswerchoicemaynotbeprinciplesbutcounterexamples.)IncompleteInformation(LikeCause&EffectTheauthorfailstoconsiderallofthepossibilities,orreliesuponevidencethatisincomplete.Thisflawcanbeattackedbybringingupnewpossibilitiesorinformation.ImproperTheauthorattemptstocomparetwoormoreitemsthatareessentiallyC)QualifiedTheauthorqualifiesorlimitstheconclusioninsuchawayastoleavetheargumentopentoattack.②Premise→Conclusion(CauseandEffectUsethearrowtodiagramthelineofreasoning.Usetheprephasedanswertofindtheexactcorrectanswer.TypicalwaystoattackaCausalA)FindanalternatecauseforthestatedHumanbeingshavecognitivefacultiesthataresuperiortothoseofotheranimals,andoncehumansbecomeawareofthese,theycannotbemadehappybyanythingthatdoesnotinvolvegratificationofthesefaculties.Whichoneofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,mostcallsintoquestiontheviewCertainanimals-dolphinsandchimpanzees,forexample-appeartobecapableofrationalManypeoplefamiliarbothwithintellectualstimulationandwithphysicalpleasuresenjoythelatterone.SomewhoneverexperiencedclassicalmusicasachildwillusuallypreferpopularmusicasanManypeoplewhoareseriousathletesconsiderthemselvestobeManypeoplewhoareseriousathleteslovegourmetShowthatevenShowthatevenwhenthecauseoccurs,theeffectdoesnotoccurShowthatalthoughtheeffectoccurs,thecausedidnotoccurShowthatthestatedrelationshipisShowthatastatisticalproblemexistswiththedatausedtomakethecausal4.Final①Carefullyreadthestimulusandanswerchoices.Payattentiontothespecificsoftheconclusion,andclassifyanswerchoicestoContendersandLosers.②Prephaseanswer.Ifthestimuluscontainscauseandeffectreasoning,usethearrowtodrawit.③Trytofigureouttheunderlineprinciplesineveryexamplethatexistsasananswerchoice.Donotgeneralize.④BeconfidenttoyourselfandpayattentiontotimeChapter7CauseandEffect**CauseandXXXX，即結論中出現因果關系，則結論一定有因XXXX出現在前提中，則結論可能是錯的。假如1.Mostcausalconclusionsareflawedbecausetherecanbealternativeexplanationsforthestatedrelationship:①Anothercausecouldaccountforthe②Athirdeventcouldhavecausedboththestatedcauseand③Thesituationmayinfactbe④Theeventsmayberelatedbutnot⑤Entireoccurrencecouldbetheresultof2.CausalityintheConclusionversusCausalityinthestatementistheconclusion,thenthereasoningisflawed.Ifthecausalstatementisthepremise,thentheargumentmaybeflawed,butnotbecauseofthecausalstatement.ThisisanargumentwithacausalPremise:InNorthAmerica,peopledrinkalotofPremise:ThereisahighfrequencyofcancerinNorthIfacausalclaimismadeinthepremises,however,thennocausalreasoningerrorexistsinargument.(Ofcourse,theargumentmaybeflawedinotherways.)Asmentionedpreviously,makersoftheGMATtendtoallowpremisestogounchallengedanditisconsideredacceptableforanauthortobeginhisargumentbystatingacausalrelationshipandthencontinuingfromthere:Premise:DrinkingmilkcausesPremise:TheresidentsofNorthAmericadrinkalotofConclusion:Therefore,inNorthAmericathereisahighfrequencyofcanceramongthe3.Situationsthatcanleadtoerrorsof①Oneeventoccursbefore②Two(ormore)eventsoccuratthesameGMAT總是認為，這個起因是唯一的起因，4.HowtoattackaCausal①FindanalternatecauseforthestatedeffectBecausetheauthorbelievesthatthereisonlyonecause,identifyinganothercauseweakenstheconclusion.②Showthatevenwhenthecauseoccurs,theeffectdoesnotoccur。表明即使原因發(fā)Thistypeofansweroftenappearsintheformofcounterexample.Becausetheauthorbelievesthatthecausealwaysproducestheeffect,anyscenariowherethecauseoccursandtheeffectdoesnotweakenstheconclusion.③Showthatalthoughtheeffectoccursthecausedidnotoccur表明雖然結果發(fā)生，但是原因沒有發(fā)生有果無因Thistypeofansweroftenappearsintheformofcounterexample.Becausetheauthorbelievesthattheeffectisalwaysproducedbythesamecause,anyscenariowheretheeffectoccursandthecausedoesnotweakenstheargument.④ShowthatthestatedrelationshipisreversedBecausetheauthorbelievesBecausetheauthorbelievesthatthecauseandeffectrelationshipiscorrectlyshowingthattherelationshipisbackwardsunderminesthe⑤Showthatastatisticalproblemexistswiththedatausedtomakethecausal補充ConditionalConditionalReasoningAsufficientconditioncanbedefinedasaneventorcircumstancewhoseoccurrenceindicatesthatanecessaryconditionmustalsooccur.AnecessaryconditioncanbedefinedasaneventorcircumstancewhoseoccurrencerequiredinorderforasufficientconditiontoTointroduceasufficientInordertoTointroduceanecessaryOnlyifWeakeningConditionalAsprovenbythediscussionofthepreviousproblem,thereisasimpleruleforweakeningaconditionalconclusion:Toweakenaconditionalconclusion,attackthenecessaryconditionbyshowingthatthenecessaryconditiondoesnotneedtooccurinorderforthesufficientconditiontooccur.ThiscanbeachievedbypresentingacounterexampleorbypresentinginformationthatshowsthatthesufficientconditioncanoccurwithoutthenecessaryThisleadstoanotherClassicWhenyouhaveconditionalreasoninginthestimulusandaWeakenquestion,immediatelylookforananswerthatattacksthenecessarycondition.引申Chapter8StrengthenandAssumptionSupport:6,11,13,14，21,25,32,42,51,53,65,67,68,82,94,100,InadditiontothePrimaryObjective,keepthesefundamentalrulesinmindapproachingStrengthen&Assumption1.Thestimuluswillcontainanargument.Sinceyouarebeingaskedabouttheauthor’sreasoning,andreasoningrequiresaconclusion,anargumentwillalwaysbepresent.Inordertomaximizeyourchanceofsuccess,youshouldidentify,isolate,andassessthepremisesandtheconclusionoftheargument.Onlybyunderstandingthestructureoftheargumentcanyougaintheperspectivenecessarytounderstandtheauthor’s2.Focusontheconclusion.Almostallcorrectanswerchoicesimpacttheconclusion.Themoreyouknowaboutthespecificsoftheconclusion,thebetterarmedyouwillbetodifferentiatethecorrectandincorrect3.Theinformationinthestimulusissuspect.Thereareoftenreasoningerrorpresent,ofpossibleanswersbeforeproceedingtotheanswer5.Theanswerchoicesareacceptasgiven,eveniftheyinclude“new”information.LikeWeakenQuestions,theanswerchoicestotheproblemsinthischaptercanbringintoconsiderationinformationoutsideofortangentialtothestimulus.JustbecauseafactorideaisnotmentionedinthestimulusisnotgroundsfordismissingananswerThedifferencebetweenStrengthen&AssumptionStrengthenQuestionsaskyoutosupporttheargumentinanywaypossible.Thistypeofanswerhasgreatrange,astheadditionalsupportprovidedbytheanswerchoicecouldberelativelyminorormajor.Speakinginnumericalterms,anyanswerchoicethatstrengthenstheargument,whetherby1%or100%,iscorrect.AssumptionQuestionsaskyoutoidentifyastatementthattheargumentassumessupposes.Anassumptionissimplyanunstatedpremise-whatmustbetrueinordertheargumenttobetrue.Anassumptiontheargumenttobetrue.Anassumptioncanthereforebedefinedassomethingthatisnecessaryfortheargumenttobetrue.Thecorrectanswerchoicedoesnotnecessarilyjustifytheargument,noristhecorrectanswerchoicenecessarilyanassumptionoftheargument.Thecorrectanswerchoicesimplyhelpstheargumentinsomeway.Howtostrengthenan1.Identifytheconclusion:Thisiswhatyouaretryingto2.Personalizethe 3.Lookforweaknessesintheargument.4.Argumentscontainanalogiesorusesurveysrelyuponthevalidityofthoseanalogiesandsurveys.Answerchoicesthatstrengthentheanalogyorsurvey,orestablishtheirsoundness,areusuallycorrect.Argumentargument5.Rememberthatthecorrectanswercanstrengthentheargumentjustalittleoralot.Thisvariationiswhatmakesthesequestionsdifficult.ThreeIncorrectAnswer1.OppositeWeakenargument,因為這個選項和結論有著直接的關系，所以顯得非常誘人，預判選Ifyouseeaweaknessorflawintheargument,lookforananswerthateliminatestheweakness.Inotherwords,closeanygaporholeintheargument.ManyStrengthenquestionsrequirestudentstofindthemissinglinkbetweenapremiseandtheconclusion.Thesemissinglinksareassumptionsmadebytheauthor,andbringinganassumptiontolightstrengthenstheargumentbecauseitvalidatespartoftheauthor’sthinking.ThisideawillbediscussedfurtherintheAssumptionsectionofthechapter.way?”Ifso,youhavethecorrectShellGameOutofShellGameOutofScopeCausalityandStrengthenInstrengthenquestions,supportingacauseandeffectrelationshipalmostalwaysconsistsofperformingoneofthefollowingtasks:1.Eliminateanyalternatecausesforthestated排除他因，消除其他原因的可能性也是一種加強Becausetheauthorbelievesthereisonlyonecause(thestatedcauseintheargument),eliminatingotherpossiblecausesstrengthenstheconclusion.Showthatwhenthecauseoccurs,theeffectoccurs.(Thistypeofanswerappearintheformofan有因必有果這個類型常以一個例子的形式Becausetheauthorbelievesthatthecausealwaysproducestheeffect,anywherethecauseoccursandtheeffectfollowslendscredibilitytotheconclusion.Thistypeofanswercanappearintheformofaexample.3.Showthatwhenthecausedoesnotoccur,theeffectdoesnot那么結果也一定不發(fā)生。支持結論；og上蝙蝠那道題；Usingthereasoninginthepreviouspoint,anyscenariowherethecausedoesnotandtheeffectdoesnotoccursupportstheconclusion.Thistypeofansweralsocanappearintheformofanexample.4.Eliminatethepossibilitythatthestatedrelationshipis因果不顛倒。消除因果倒置的可能Becausetheauthorbelievesthatthecauseandeffectrelationshipiscorrectlystated,eliminatingthepossibilitythattherelationshipisbackwards(theclaimedeffectisactuallythecauseoftheclaimedcause)strengthenstheconclusion.5.Showthatthedatausedtomakethecausalstatementareaccurate,oreliminatethepossibleproblemswiththedata.Ifthedatausedtomakeacausalstatementisinerror,thenthevalidityoftheclaimisinquestion.Anyinformationthateliminateserrororreducesthepossibilityoferrorwillsupporttheargument.JustifytheConclusionToJustifytheConclusionTosolvethistypeofquestion,applytheJustifyFormula:Premises+Answerchoice=ConclusionMostJustifytheConclusionquestionstemstypicallycontainsomeofthefollowingthreeThestemusestheword“if”oranothersufficientconditionThestemusesthephrase“allowstheconclusiontobeproperlydrawn”or“enablestheconclusiontobeproperlydrawn.”ThestemdoesnotlessenthedegreeofBecauselogicallyprovinganargumentisadifficulttaskthatrequires100%certainty,onlycertaintypesofargumentationtendtoappearinJustifystimuli.Infact,mostJustifystimulieitheruseConditionalReasoningorcontainnumbersandpercentages.Why?Becausebothformsofreasoningallowforcertaintywhendrawingaconclusion.Considerthefollowingexample,whichcontainsconditionalreasoning:Premise:AConclusion:BThisexamplecanquicklybeturnedintoaJustifytheConclusionquestionbyremovingeitherpremise.Forexample:Premise:Aoccurs.Conclusion:Boccurs.Question:WhatstatementcanbeaddedtotheargumentabovetoconcludethatBmustAnswer:A→Or,theotherpremisecouldbePremise:A→BQuestion:WhatstatementcanbeaddedtotheargumentabovetoconcludethatBmustAnswer:AThemechanisticInanutshell,therulescondensetothefollowing:linknewelementsinthepremisesandconclusionandignoreelementscommontoboth.AssumptionOG:Bible200頁第四題沒懂OG:Bible200頁第四題沒懂Asmentionedintheprevioussection,separatingJustifytheConclusionquestionsfromAssumptionquestionscanbedifficult.Assumptionquestionstemstypicallycontainthefollowingfeatures:Thestemusestheword“assumption,”“presupposition,”orsomevariation.“Presupposition”isanotherwordfor“assumes.”Thesewordsareadirectreflectionofthetaskathand.Thestemneverusestheword“if”oranyothersufficientconditionindicator.Becauseanassumptionisanecessarypartoftheargument,nosufficientconditionindicatorscanappearinthequestionstem.TheappearanceofsufficientconditionindicatormeansthatthequestioniseitheraJustifyorStrengthenquestion.ThestemofanAssumptionquestionwilllikelycontainanecessaryconditionindicatorsuchasrequiredorSupporterAssumptions&Defender1.SupporterAssumptions:Theseassumptionslinktoget