國際商法英文閱讀資料1

TheCommonLawandItsCompetitors

Thereisabewilderingvarietyoflegalsystemsintheworld.Everycountryhasitsown;andintheUnitedStates;eachstatehasalegalsystemfordealingwithitsinternalaffairs,withthenational(federal)systemontopofit.Alawstudentusuallystudiesthelawofasinglecountry---theoneheorsheplanstopracticein.Butlawisstrictlydefinedbynationality:itstopsattheborder.Outsideitshomebase,ithasnovalidityatall.

Notwolegalsystems,then,areexactlyalike.Eachisspecifictoitscountryoritsjurisdiction.Thisdoesnotmean,ofcourse,thateverylegalsystemisentirelydifferentfromeveryotherlegalsystem.Notatall.Whentwocountriesaresimilarincultureandtradition,theirlegalsystemsarelikelytobesimilaraswell.NodoubtthelawsofAustraliaandNewZealandarenotthatfarapart.

Wecanalsoclumplegalsystemstogetherintoclusters,or“families”----groupsoflegalsystemsthathaveimportanttraitsofstructure,substance,orcultureincommon.Thewordfamilyisuseddeliberately:inmostcases,membersofalegalfamilyarerelated,thatis,theyhaveacommonparentorancestor,orelsehaveborrowedtheirlawsfromacommonsource.EnglishsettlerscarriedEnglishlawwiththemtotheAmericancolonies,toCanada,Australia,NewZealandetc.ManycountriesintheworldoncewerepartoftheBritishEmpire.Thesecountriesarenowindependentandhavedistinctlegalsystemsoftheirown;buttheyhavekepttheirbasictraditions.

Thelargestmostimportantfamilyistheso-calledcivil-lawfamily.MembersofthisfamilyoweacommondebttoRomanlaw.TheancientRomansweregreatlawmakers.TheirtraditionnevercompletelydiedoutinEurope.IntheMiddleAges,Romanlaw,initsclassicform,wasrediscoveredadrevived;eventoday,codesoflawinEuropereflect“theinfluenceofRomanlaw”.WesternEurope----France,Germany,Italy,Spain,Portugaletc.------isdefinitelycivil-lawcountry.ThroughSpainandPortugal,thecivillawtraveledtoLatinAmerica.TheFrenchbroughtittotheircoloniesinAfrica.TheFrenchbroughtittotheircoloniesinAfrica.InCanada,thecivillawisdominantintheFrench-speakingprovinceofQuebec.Itplaysamajorrole,too,incountrieslikeJapanandTurkey,whichstandcompletelyoutsidethehistoricaltraditionbutwhichborrowedchunksofRomanlawinrecenttimes,inhopesofgettingmoderninahurry.

Civil-lawsystemsare,generallyspeaking,“codified”systems;thebasiclawissetoutincodes.Thesearestatutes,orrathersuperstatutes,enactedbythenationalparliament,whicharrangewholefieldsoflawinanorderly,logical,andcomprehensiveway.Historically,themostimportantofthecodeswasthecivilcodeofFrance,theso-calledCodeNapoleon.Ithashadatremendousinfluenceontheformandsubstanceofmostlatercodes.

DuringtheRenaissance,EuropeanlegalscholarshipwasdazzledbythepowerandbeautyoftherediscoveredRomanlaw.Onecountry,however,managedtoresisttheso-called“reception,”thatis,theacceptanceofRomanlaw.Englandalonewasnotseduced.Itheldfasttoitsnativetraditions.ManyideasandtermsfromRomanandEuropeanlawdid,tobesure,creepintoEnglishlaw;butthecorelegalsystemofthisislandheldfirm.Thistenaciouslocalsystemwastheso-calledcommonlaw.Itdifferedandcontinuestodifferinmanywaysfromthelegalorderinitsneighboringcountries.Foronethingthecommonlawresistedcodification.ThereeverwasanEnglishequivalentoftheNapoleonicCode.ThebasicprinciplesoflawwerenotfoundprimarilyinactsofParliament,butinthecaselaw-----thebodyofdecidingparticularcases.Thedoctrineof“precedent”-----themaximthatajudgeisboundinsomewaybywhathasalreadybeendecided----isstrictlyacommon-lawdoctrine.Thecommonlawalsohasitsownpeculiarfeaturesofsubstance,structure,andculture.Thejury,forexample,isacommon-lawinstitution.Soisthe“trust,”anarrangementinwhichaperson(orbank)astrusteereceivesmoneyorpropertytoinvestandmanageforthebenefitofcertainbeneficiaries.

Thecommonlawisnolongerconfinedtoasinglesmallcountry.TheEnglishbroughtittotheircolonies,andinmostcasesittookrootandthrived.Allcommon-lawcountrieswereoncecoloniesofGreatBritain,or,insomecases,coloniesofcolonies.

Thecivil-lawsystemwasdescribedasthedominantsysteminWesternEurope.NomentionwasmadeofEasternEurope,whichisaratherdifficultareaforpurposesofclassification.Russiaanditssatellitesoncehadclosetieswiththecivil-lawsystems.Socialistrevolutionshavetransformedthesecountries;butlegalresemblancetoWesternEuropeisstillfairlyclose.Thisiswhysomescholarstreatthesesystemsasstillpartofthatfamily.

Ingeneral,itisafairlyc