運用概念整合理論分析英語委婉語

Acknowledgements

Igreatlyappreciateallthesupportthathasbeengivenonthethesispresentedhere.First

andforemost,Ishouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomyadviser,ProfessorZhang

Haiying,forherdeepinsightandgreatpatienceaswellasconstructivecommentsinaiding

methroughouttheprocessofwritingthisthesis.Withoutherthought-provoking

instructionsandconstantencouragement,thethesiswouldnotappearinthepresentform.

Secondly,mygratitudealsogoestootherprofessorsandteachersfortheirilluminating

lecturesandpreciousadviceswhichinspiredandnurturedmeduringmystudyformaster

degreeatthecollegeofForeignlanguagesofShanghaiMaritimeUniversity.

Thirdly,myheartfeltgratitudeisextendedtoallofmyfriends,classmateswhohave

offeredmehelpfulsuggestionandvaluablereferencebooksduringthewritingofthis

thesis.

Andlastbutnotleast,Iowespecialthankstomyfamilywho,inonewayoranother,

helpedmeallthetimeinthecompletionofthisthesis.

摘要

“委婉語如此深深地嵌入我們的語言，以至于我們中間沒有誰(即使那些自詡為

直截了當?shù)娜?能夠在不使用委婉語的情況下過完每一天的"。(Rawson,1995：1)

很久以來，很多學者從修辭學，語義學，語用學，社會語言學等角度對英語委婉

語都各有特色，但從認知角度進行研究的卻很少。因此本文試圖從概念整合理論出發(fā),

通過框架和映射二個視角來探討英語委婉語的意義生成機制和解讀過程。文章所用語

料兒乎全部出自國內(nèi)--部最權威的英語委婉語詞典：劉純豹教授所編《英語委婉語詞

典》，希望能給英語委婉語認知研究提供更加有力的語料來源。

全文共分為五章。

第一章主要是論文的研究目的，意義，委婉語認知角度研究的文獻綜述，以及論

文的結構。

第二章概述英語委婉語的定義，歷史，動機，以及構成。

第三章主要介紹概念整合理論。

第四章通過概念整合理論中框架(Frame)和映射(Mappings)二個視角，結合實例對

英語委婉語的意義生成機制和解讀過程進行具體分析。

第五章是對全文的總結。

通過分析，我們得知：在概念整合理論指導下，憑借框架(Frame),映射(Mappings)

二個視角，很多英語委婉語都能得到很詳盡的認知詮釋。就英語委婉語的認知機制來

說，從模糊的語義意義到清晰的語用意義就是一個認知過程。在其過程中聽者對于禁

忌語的注意力不再集中而是極大的擴散從而使禁忌所帶來不佳的影響大幅度的被淡

化，甚至暫時地被掩飾。

關鍵詞：概念整合；英語委婉語；框架；映射；認知機制

Abstract

"Euphemismsareembeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewho

pridethemselveson(in)beingplain-spoken,evergothroughadaywithoutthem”.

(Rawson,1995：1)

Englisheuphemismshavelongattractedmuchattentionfromscholarsfromvarious

perspectivessuchasrhetoric,semantics,pragmatics,andsociolinguistics,etc.Yet,they

havebeenseldomstudiedfromthecognitiveapproach.Asaboldendeavor,thispresent

thesisappliestheConceptualIntegrationTheorytotheanalysisofEnglisheuphemismsto

discovertheircognitivemechanismandmeaningconstruction.Mostoftheexamplesare

takenfromAdictionaryofEnglisheuphemismscompiledbyProf.LiuChunbao.

Thisthesisconsistsoffivechapters:

Chapter1istheintroduction,explainingtheobjectivesandsignificanceofthethesis.

Literaturereviewandtheorganizationofthethesisarealsopresentedinthispart.

Chapter2discussesthedefinition,history,motivations,andcognitiveformation

mechanismsofEnglisheuphemisms.

Chapter3introducestheconceptualintegrationtheory.

Chapter4appliestheConceptualIntegrationTheorytotheanalysisofEnglish

euphemisms

Chapter5presentstheconclusionreachedinthisthesis.

Themainconclusiondrawnfromthepresentthesisisthat,accordingtoframesand

mappings,manyEnglisheuphemismsareavailabletobecognitivelyanalyzedtothefull.

Moreover,basedonanalysesofcognitivemechanisminEnglisheuphemismsin

chapter4,wecometolearnthatthechangefromunclearsemanticmeaningtoclear

pragmaticmeaninginvolvesacognitiveprocessduringwhichtheattentionfocusofa

conceptsignifiedbytabooissoenormouslydiffusedthatitsevocativeimpactisgreatly

lessenedoreventemporallyconcealedtotheutmost.

Keyword:conceptualintegration,Englisheuphemisms,frames,mappings,

cognitivemechanism

Contents

Chapter1Introduction...........................................................................................................................1

1.1ObjectivesandPurposes.........................................................................................................1

1.2SignificanceofthePresentResearch....................................................................................1

1.3LiteratureReview...................................................................................................................2

1.4TheOrganizationoftheThesis.............................................................................................4

Chapter2EnglishEuphemisms...........................................................................................................5

2.1DefinitionandHistoryofEnglishEuphemisms...................................................................5

2.1.1Definition.....................................................................................................................5

2.1.2History.........................................................................................................................6

2.2TheMotivationsofEmergenceofEuphemisms................................................................8

2.2.1Taboo...........................................................................................................................8

2.2.2Politeness..................................................................................................................10

2.2.3Humor........................................................................................................................11

2.2.4Concealing..................................................................................................................12

2.3CognitiveFormationMechanismsofEnglishEuphemisms.............................................13

2.3.1TransferandDispersionofAttentionFocus............................................................13

ConceptualMetaphor....................................................................................13

ConceptualMetonymy..................................................................................14

2.3.2CulturalImageTransformation................................................................................16

2.3.3TemporaryThoughtBlockingduringtheCognitiveProcess................................16

2.4Summary...............................................................................................................................18

Chapter3ConceptualIntegrationTheory.........................................................................................19

3.1MentalSpaceTheory............................................................................................................19

3.2AnIntroductiontoConceptualIntegrationTheory...........................................................21

3.3TheNetworkModelofConceptualIntegrationTheory....................................................22

3.3.1DescriptionofSomeKeyTerms..............................................................................22

MentalSpace..................................................................................................22

Mapping.........................................................................................................23

Projection.......................................................................................................24

3.3.2TheNetworkModel.................................................................................................24

3.4VitalRelations......................................................................................................................28

3.5NetworkModelTypes..........................................................................................................30

3.5.1SimplexNetworks.....................................................................................................31

3.5.2MirrorNetwork.........................................................................................................32

3.5.3Single-Scope-Network...........................................................................................33

3.5.4Double-Scope-Network..........................................................................................34

3.5.5Multi-Scope-Network.............................................................................................35

3.6Summary...............................................................................................................................35

Chapter4AnalysisofEnglishEuphemismsbyCIT........................................................................37

4.1Methodology.........................................................................................................................37

4.1.1CorpusSelection.......................................................................................................37

4.1.2AnalyticalMethodsandProcedures...........................................................................39

4.2EuphemismsforOccupation...............................................................................................39

4.2.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................39

4.2.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................40

4.3EuphemismsforGender.......................................................................................................49

4.3.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................49

4.3.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................50

4.4EuphemismsforBody..........................................................................................................52

4.4.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................52

4.4.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................52

4.5EuphemismsforDisease......................................................................................................55

4.5.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................55

4.5.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................55

4.6EuphemismsforDeath.........................................................................................................59

4.6.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................59

4.6.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................60

4.7EuphemismsforWarandPolitics.......................................................................................63

4.7.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................63

4.7.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................65

4.8Summary...............................................................................................................................71

Chapter5Conclusion............................................................................................................................72

Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................74

Chapter1Introduction

1.1ObjectivesandPurposes

Foralongtime,manyascholaranalyzedEnglisheuphemismsfromvariouspointsof

view,contributingenormouslytotheresearchofEnglisheuphemismsfromtheirunique

perspectives.Nevertheless,fewscholarshavetriedtoprobeintothegreatpartthatthe

cognitivemechanismplaysintheprocessofmeaningconstructionandinterpretation.

Simpleastheymayseem,euphemismshavealwayspuzzledlinguistsaswellas

psychologistsduetotheirmeaningconstructioninthecognitiveprocessandreasoning

mechanismintheinterpretationprocess.However,withtherapiddevelopmentofcognitive

science,cognitivelinguisticshasemergedasadistinguishedsubjectinthepast20years.

FauconnierandTurner,scholarsofeminenceinthelinguisticfield,createdtheConceptual

IntegrationTheory(CIT)incollaborationinthe1990s.Duringthepastfewyears,some

researchersathomeandabroadhavemadetentativeeffortstoanalyzemultifarious

linguisticphenomenainthelightofthistheory,yieldingsubstantialandplentifulfruits.

BasedonframesandmappingsofCIT,whichwasputforwardbyFauconnierandother

scholars,thepresentresearchiscarriedoutinanattempttodiscoverthecognitive

mechanismandmeaningconstructionofEnglisheuphemismswithvividandconcrete

examples.

1.2SignificanceofthePresentResearch

Thepresentresearchisofgreatsignificanceatboththeoreticalandpracticallevels.

Theoretically,ConceptualIntegrationTheoryfocusesonthehumancognition,behavior,

language,andthemetaphormechanismoflanguageinparticularviakeepingtrackof

meaningconstructiononamovingmode.(Fauconnier,1998:133)Ityieldsacademic

achievementsthatbecomeentrenchedinconceptualstructureandgrammarandlaysmore

stressonthecognitivemeaningoftheemergentstructurethroughtheprocessof

composition,completion,andelaborationsoastodecipherthemysteryiceberghidden

behindtheon-lineconstructionofmeaningandfurtherprobeintotheuniversallawof

languagecognition.AccordingtoFauconnier&Turner(2002),ratherthananewcreation,

conceptualintegrationis,infact,oneoftheessentialtoolsbymeansofwhichwecan

apprehendandevenconstructthisworld.ApplicationofConceptualIntegrationTheoryto

analyzingEnglisheuphemismsdisplaysnotonlytheexplanatorypowerofCIT,butalso

expandstheresearchfieldofCIT.

Practically,onaccountoftheirwidespreaduseineveryareaofsociallifethroughout

theworld,euphemismsonawholeboastofdifferenceinmechanism,motivation,culture

andcharacteristics;thereforetheydeserveoureffortstoconductaprofoundresearch.With

theaidofCIT,itwouldbeeasytogetacrosstheimplicaturesofEnglisheuphemisms,

whichisalsoakindofcognitivephenomenon.Furthermore,somethinguniquelyexpressed

inEnglisheuphemisms,whichrangesfromculturalaspectstocustomsand

socio-psychologyinBritish-Americansociety,couldalsobeconveyed.Inthissense,the

interpretationofEnglisheuphemismswiththeaidofCITisofprofoundsignificancein

reducingculturalmisunderstandings,mitigatingculturalconflictsandpromotingcultural

exchange.

1.3LiteratureReview

Cognitivelinguistics,anewbranchoflearning,hasattractedattentionofmoreand

morescholars,whohaveconductedseriesofresearchesintoit.

WangYongzhong(2003)holdsthatthesemanticrelationbetweeneuphemismsand

taboosisn'tsynonymicatall.Accordingly,traditionalsemanticsfailstoexplainthe

semanticrelationbetweenthemandthereforeisn'tcapableofdecipheringtheoperating

mechanismofeuphemismstothefullextent.Andheelaboratesonthecognitivemotivation

ofeuphemismsintermsofthecategoryandprototypetheories.Inhisview,thecognitive

motivationofeuphemismscouldbeclassifiedintotwotypes:evolvementofmeaningfrom

prototypesensetomarginalone(poor-needy-culturallydeprived-disadvantaged),and

weakeningtypicalityoffamilyresemblance(metaphorandmetonymy:death-atrest-fall

asleep;breast-chest-bosoms-front).LiangYanchun(2003)triestousetheblendspace

theorytomakeadetailedanalysisofeuphemismsbyfocusingontheirmeaning

constructionandreasoningmechanism.ShaoJunhangandFanWeiwei(2004)illustrate

generativemechanismofeuphemismsandtheiraccurateprocessofcomprehensionfrom

thecognitiveperspective,anddividecognitivemechanismofEnglisheuphemismsinto

threetypes:transferanddispersionofattentionfocus,culturalimagetransformation,and

temporarythoughtblockingduringthecognitiveprocess(2.3CognitiveFormation

MechanismsofEuphemism).LiuRushanandJiangXiaoyu(2005)expoundtheirviewson

operatingmechanismofmetaphoricaleuphemismsanddivideitinto4types:semantic

conflict,semanticsimilarity,defamiliarization,anddualimaging.Semanticconflictrefers

toaphenomenonviolatingsemanticselectionalrestrictionorconvention.Semantic

similarityisthesimilarrelationbetweentenor(targetdomain)andvehicle(sourcedomain).

Defamiliarizationisthemeanstousesomethingfarlessfamiliarthanthetenor.Dual

imagingisthemeansofextraordinarycollocationinmetaphortoarouseinpeopleanormal

associationaswellasitscorrespondingimage.Allthesetypes,intheiropinions,are

instrumentalinunderstandingmetaphoricaleuphemism.Mainlyfromtheperspectiveof

conceptualmetonymy,LuWeizhongandKongShujuan(2006)probeintothewaysand

featuresofmeaningconstructionofsomeeuphemismsandtheirinterpretations(metonymy

generatingmechanismandlanguagemetonymy(vocabulary,grammar,andpragmatics)in

relationtoeuphemisms)andconcludethat,uponsynchronicordiachronicbasis,metonymy

isinvariablyanimportantmechanismandmeansinmeaningconstructionofsome

euphemismsaswellastheirinterpretation.ChenLiwen(2006)appliesLakoffs

ConceptualMetaphorTheorytoanalyzingthemotivationofeuphemisms.Andheclassifies

thecognitivemotivationofmetaphoricaleuphemismsintothreetypes:theweakening

resemblanceofmeaningbetweenthetargetandsourceconcepts,highlightinganduplifting

thesourceconcept,andmappingfrompsychologicallyhighlyaccessiblesourcedomainto

lowlyaccessibletargetdomain.Inhisopinion,euphemismsdemandcognitiveexplanation

ratherthantraditionalsemanticstheoryintermsoftheirinternalsemanticconstructionor

theirfundamentalmotivation.Theresemblancebetweenthesourcedomainandthetarget

domainintheconceptualsystemservesthegroundofthiscognitiveprocedure.Whenthis

resemblanceisweak,thesemanticconceptinthesalientsourcedomaingetsheightened,

andthenitismappedfrompsychologicallyhighlyaccessiblesourcedomaintolowly

accessibletargetdomain,andthusactivatesthetargetdomainandmakesitsconceptsalient.

Andfinallyheconcludesthatconceptualmetaphortheorycanhelppeopleunderstandthe

semanticconstructionofeuphemismsandmaysteerrelevantstudytoadynamicandopen

fieldandthereforeitprovidesanewperspectiveforthestudyofeuphemismsmotivation.

Laterin2007,heutilizesFauconnierandTurner'scross-mappingstheorytoillustratethe

similaritiesanddifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglisheuphemismsandtheirdifferent

cognitivemechanismsinconceptualblending.Later,ZhouFujuanandTangDingjun(2008)

studythecognitivemotivationofEnglisheuphemismsandclassifymetonymic

euphemismsintofivetypes:thewholereplacingthepart,thepartreplacingthewhole,

placereplacingevent,placereplacinginstitution,andcharacteristicsofthingreplacingthe

thingperse.Andfinallytheyconcludethatconceptualmetonymy,asawayofthinking,is

nolessimportantthanconceptualmetaphorandthattheinteractionofconceptual

metonymyandothercognitivemechanismssuchasconceptualmetaphoriscapableof

providingamorepowerfulexplanationfortheconstructionofEnglisheuphemisms.

1.4TheOrganizationoftheThesis

Thepresentstudyiscomprisedoffivechapters.Chapter1givesageneralintroduction

tothewholeresearch,statestheobjectivesandsignificance,andexplainsthestructureof

thepresentthesis.Aliteraturereviewisalsomadetointroducepreviousachievementson

thesubjectmatterunderdiscussion.Chapter2givesacomprehensivedescriptionof

Englisheuphemismincludingitsdefinition,history,motivationandformation.Chapter3

introducestheConceptualIntegrationTheory.Chapter4isthemajorpartofthisthesis.

Withtheaidofframesandmappings,theauthormakestentativeeffortstointegratethe

CITtheoryintotheanalysisofEnglisheuphemismsforthepurposeofdecipheringthe

cognitivemechanismandmeaningconstructionofEnglisheuphemisms.Chapter5givesa

conclusiontothewholeresearch.

Chapter2EnglishEuphemisms

2.1DefinitionandHistoryofEnglishEuphemisms

2.1.1Definition

Euphemismissuchacommonlinguisticphenomenonthatitisgenerallyregardedasa

“l(fā)ubricant”inlanguage.Etymologically,EnglishEuphemismsoriginatedfromtaboo

language.Peopletendedtousealternativeexpressionstoaverttaboowhichusually

provokedunpleasantfeelings,andthuseuphemismscameintobeing.Itisjustbymeansof

euphemismsthatpeoplebegantoexpressideasindirectlyindailycommunication.

Theword“euphemism”,whichcamefromtheGreeksuffixthatmeans"good"

andtheroot“pheme“thatmeans“speechorsaying”,refersto“tospeakwithgoodwords

orinapleasantmanner”.Nevertheless,withregardtoEnglisheuphemisms,scholarsin

differentagesputforwarddefinitionsfromdifferentaspects.

Asearlyas1656A.D,theEnglishwriterThomasBlountusedtheterm^euphemism"in

Englishforthefirsttime,definingitas“agoodorfavorableinterpretationofabadword”.

(Neaman&Silver,1983:4)Euphemism,asdefinedbyThomasBlount,describesamanner

ofspeakingthatleanstowardindirectnessintheserviceofpleasantness.In1991,Allanand

Burridgesays,“Aneuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferedexpressionin

ordertoavoidpossiblelossofface,eitherone'sownface,orthroughgivingoffence,that

oftheaudience,orofsomethirdParty,9.(Allan&Burridge,1991:168-201)Later,Rawson

defineseuphemismsas"mild,agreeable,orroundaboutwordsusedinplaceofcoarse,

painfuloroffensiveones99.(Rawson,1995:10)InTheOxfordEnglishDictionary(2nd

edition),euphemismisdefinedas“Thefigureofspeechwhichconsistsinthesubstitution

ofawordorexpressionofcomparativelyfavorableimplicationorlessunpleasant

associations,insteadoftheharsherormoreoffensiveonethatwouldmoreprecisely

designatewhatisintended”.(1972:436)AndinCollinsDictionaryoftheEnglish

Language,thedefinitionis“aninoffensivewordorphrasesubstitutedforoneconsidered

offensiveorhurtful,esp.oneconcernedwithreligion,sex,deathorexcreta,9.(1979:512)At

thesametimeinWebster'sEncyclopedicUnabridgedDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,

euphemismis“thesubstitutionofamildindirectorvagueexpressionforonethought

substituted”.(Webster,1996:248)Inthissense,euphemismcomprisesnotonlywords,but

alsosentences,paragraphsandevendiscourses.Moreover,accordingtoLongman

DictionaryofContemporaryEnglish,aneuphemismis“theuseofapleasant,lessdirect

nameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant.(2004：636)Prof.SuDingfang(1995)puts

forwardhisdefinitionofeuphemisminbothnarrowandbroadsense:theformeris

euphemismword,usuallyestablishedbyusageandacceptedbymostmembersinsociety

afterbeingusedforalongtime;forexample/5passway“istheeuphemismof“death”;the

latteristheexpressionswithcircumbendibusfunctionwhichisformedtemporarilyby

variouslanguagemeanssuchaspronunciation(unstressed,intonation),grammar(negation,

tense,voice),discourse(texture),etc.Fromtheabove-mentioneddefinitions,wecouldsee

that,differentastheyare,thesedefinitionsindicatethatinourdailyconversation,

somethingshouldbespokeninamoreindirect,politeandpleasantway.

2.1.2History

ThehistoryofEnglisheuphemismsmightbetracedbacktoWilliam'sconquestin

1066.A.Dwhenthemotiveofusingeuphemismswasnothingbutderogatethelanguageof

Anglo-Saxonsthatwasconsideredvulgarandindecent.SoNormannobleswouldn'tliketo

demeanthemselvestospeakit;moreover,eventhenativeupper-class,forfearofbeing

regardedasuncouthbyNormans,hadchosentousemanyso-calledelegantandgraceful

wordsderivedfromFrenchandLatin.Correspondingly,numerousFrenchandLatinwords

wereassimilatedintoEnglishtoreplacethosefrankexpressions,andconsequentlyevolved

intotheoriginalEnglisheuphemisms,anintegralpartofEnglishvocabulary.Theearly

tabooswereconcernedwithreligioninthat,duringthelongcourseofhistory,Christianity

hadlaidadeepimprintoneveryaspectofBritishsociallife,anditstenetsbecamethe

commandmentsabidedbyalmostthewholesociety.Unabletoexplainsomenatural

phenomenarationally,peopleattributedthemtothemysticsupernatural.Gods,whether

benignormalevolent,werecreatedoutofaweandterror.<4SincethenamesofGodswere

consideredidenticalwiththem,tospeaktheirnameswastoevokethedivinitywhose

powerthenhadtobeconfronted.Therefore,thenamesofGodscouldnotbementioned

directly,\(Neaman&Silver,1983:1-9)Asaresult,confrontedbysuchahorriblenatural

phenomenonasdeath,peoplehadtoseekextricationsfromreligion.Concurrentlyany

expressionsthatindirectlyimplieddeathwereendowedwithmorespiritualimportsdueto

theinfluenceofreligion;therebydeatheuphemismswerecreated.Manyofthem,suchas

"returntothedust","topaythedebtofnature","tobecalledtogod”,etc.originatedfrom

theBibleandsomeotherlegends.Inaddition,religionalsoexertedanenormousinfluence

onEnglisheuphemismsinotheraspects.Forinstance,“togetsomeone'sgoat“means

“enragesomebody^^;“togetontherightsideofsomebody“refersto“curryfavorwith

somebody”;and“figleaf9denotes"G-string”,etc.allcomingoftheBible.Afterthe

PuritanRevolution,therewasanemergenceofeuphemismsconcerningorgansandsex