高考可能考的名著B(niǎo)OOKVIII

BOOKVIII

OFPROPERTY

CHAPTERI

PRELIMINARYOBSERVATIONS

Thesubjectofpropertyisthekey-stonethatcompletesthefabricof

politicaljustice.Accordingasourideasrespectingitarecrudeor

correct,theywillenlightenusastotheconsequencesofasimpleform

ofsocietywithoutgovernment,andremovetheprejudicesthatattachus

tocomplexity.Thereisnothingthatmorepowerfullytendstodistortour

judgementandopinionsthanerroneousnotionsconcerningthegoodsof

fortune.Finally,theperiodthatmustputanendtothesystemofcoercion

andpunishmentisintimatelyconnectedwiththecircumstanceof

property，sbeingplaceduponanequitablebasis.

Variousabusesofthemostincontrovertiblenaturehaveinsinuated

themselvesintotheadministrationofproperty.Eachoftheseabusesmight

usefullybemadethesubjectofaseparateinvestigation.Wemightenquire

intothevexationsofthissortthatareproducedbythedreamsofnational

greatness,andthesumptuousnessofpublicofficesandmagistrates.This

wouldleadustoajustestimateofthedifferentkindsoftaxation,landed

ormercantile,havingthenecessariesortheluxuriesoflifefortheir

subjectofoperation.Wemightexamineintotheabuseswhichhaveadhered

tothecommercialsystem;monopolies,charters,patents,protecting

duties,prohibitionsandbounties.Wemightconsidertheclaimsofthe

church:firstfruitsandtithes.Allthesedisquisitionswouldtendto

showtheincalculableimportanceofthissubject.But,excludingthemall

fromthepresentenquiry,itshallbethebusinessofwhatremainsof

thisworktoexaminethesubjectinitsmostgeneralprinciples,andby

thatmeansendeavourtodiscoverthesource,notonlyoftheabusesabove

enumerated,butofothersofinnumerablekinds,toomultifariousand

subtletoenterintosobriefacatalogue.

Thesubjecttowhichthedoctrineofpropertyrelatesisallthosethings

whichconduce,ormaybeconceivedtoconduce,tothebenefitorpleasure

ofman,andwhichcannootherwisebeappliedtotheuseofoneormore

personsthanbyapermanentortemporaryexclusionoftherestofthe

species.Suchthingsinparticulararefood,clothing,habitationand

furniture.

Uponthissubjecttwoquestionsunavoidablyarise.Whoistheperson

entitledtotheuseofanyparticulararticleofthiskind?Whoisthe

personinwhosehandsthepreservationanddistributionofanynumberof

thesearticleswillbemostjustlyandbeneficiallyvested?

Theanswertothefirstofthesequestionsiseasyupontheprinciples

ofthepresentwork.Justicehasbeenprovedtobearuleapplicableto

alltheconcernsofman.Itpronouncesuponeverycasethatcanarise,

andleavesnothingtothedisposalofamomentarycaprice.(1*)Thereis

notanarticleofthekindsabovespecifiedwhichwillnotultimatelybe

theinstrumentofmorebenefitandhappinessinoneindividualmodeof

applicationthaninanyotherthancanbedevised.Thisistheapplication

itoughttoreceive.

Wearehereledtotheconsiderationofthatspeciesofrightswhichwas

designedlypostponedinanearlierdivisionofthiswork.(2*)Everyman

hasarighttothat,theexclusivepossessionofwhichbeingawardedto

him,agreatersumofbenefitorpleasurewillresultthancouldhave

arisenfromitsbeingotherwiseappropriated.Thisisthesameprinciple

asthatjustdelivered,withaslightvariationofform.Ifmanhavea

righttoanything,hehasarighttojustice.Theseterms,astheyhave

ordinarilybeenusedinmoralenquiry,are,strictlyandproperlyspeaking,

convertibleterms.

Letusseehowthisprinciplewilloperateintheinferencesitauthorities

ustomake.Humanbeingsarepartakersofacommonnature;whatconduces

tothebenefitorpleasureofonemanwillconducetothebenefitor

pleasureofanother.(3*)Henceitfollows,upontheprinciplesofequal

andimpartialjustice,thatthegoodthingsoftheworldareacommonstock,

uponwhichonemanhasasvalidatitleasanothertodrawforwhathe

wants.Itappearsinthisrespect,asformerlyitappearedinthecase

ofourclaimtotheforbearanceofeachother,(4*)thateachmanhasa

spherethelimitandterminationofwhichismarkedoutbytheequalsphere

ofhisneighbour.Ihavearighttothemeansofsubsistence;hehasan

equalright.IhavearighttoeverypleasureIcanparticipatewithout

injurytomyselforothers;histitleinthisrespectisofsimilarextent.

Thisviewofthesubjectwillappearthemorestrikingifwepassinreview

thegoodthingsoftheworld.Theymaybedividedintofourclasses;

subsistence;themeansofintellectualandmoralimprovement;inexpensive

gratifications;andsuchgratificationsasarebynomeansessentialto

healthfulandvigorousexistence,andcannotbepurchasedbutwith

considerablelabourandindustry.Itisthelastclassprincipallythat

interposesanobstacleinthewayofequaldistribution.Itwillbematter

ofafter-considerationhowfarandhowmanyarticlesofthisclasswould

beadmissibleintothepurestmodeofsocialexistence.(5*)But,inthe

meantime,itisunavoidabletoremarktheinferiorityofthisclassto

thethreepreceding.Withoutitwemayenjoytoagreatextentactivity,

contentmentandcheerfulness.Andinwhatmanneraretheseseeming

superfluitiesusuallyprocured?Byabridgingmultitudesofmentoa

deplorabledegreeinpointsofessentialmoment,thatonemanmaybe

accommodated,withsumptuousyet,strictlyconsidered,insignificant

luxuries.Supposingthealternativecouldfairlybebroughthometoaman,

anditcoulddependuponhisinstantdecision,bythesacrificeofthese

togivetofivehundredofhisfellowbeingsleisure,independence,

consciousdignity,andwhatevercanrefineandenlargethehuman

understanding,itisdifficulttoconceivehimtohesitate.But,though

thisalternativecannotbeproducedinthecaseofanindividual,itwill

perhapsbefoundtobethetruealternative,whentakenatoncein

referencetothespecies.

Totheformingajustestimateofcostlygratifications,itisnecessary

thatweshouldabstractthedirectpleasure,ontheonehand,fromthe

pleasuretheyaffordusonlyasinstrumentsforsatisfyingourloveof

distinction.Itmustbeadmittedineverysystemofmoralitynottainted

withmonasticprejudices,butadaptedtothenatureofintelligentbeings,

that,sofarasrelatestoourselves,andleavingourconnectionwiththe

speciesoutoftheconsideration,weoughtnottorefuseanypleasure,

exceptasittendstotheexclusionofsomegreaterpleasure.(6*)Butit

hasalreadybeenshown(7*)thatthedifferenceinthepleasuresofthe

palate,betweenasimpleandwholesomedietontheonehand,andallthe

complexitiesofthemostsplendidtableontheother,issosmallthat

fewmenwouldeventhinkitworththetediumthatattendsuponachange

ofservices,ifthepleasureofthepalateweretheonlythinginquestion,

andtheyhadnospectatortoadmiretheirmagnificence.’Hewhoshould

formhimself,withthegreatestcare,uponasystemofsolitarysensualism,

wouldprobablycomeatlasttoadecisionnotdifferentfromthatwhich

Epicurusissaidtohaveadoptedinfavouroffreshherbs,andwaterfrom

thespring.,(8*)Thesameobservationappliestothesplendourof

furniture,equipageanddress.Sofarasrelatestothegratificationof

theeye,thispleasuremaybereaped,withlesstrouble,andingreater

refinement,fromthebeautieswhichnatureexhibitstoourobservation.

Noman,ifthedirectpleasureweretheonlythinginconsideration,would

thinkthedifferencetohimselfworthpurchasingbytheoppressionof

multitudes.

Butthesethings,thoughtrivialinthemselves,arehighlypried,from

thatloveofdistinctionwhichischaracteristicofeveryhumanmind.The

creditableartisanortradesmanexertsacertainspeciesofindustryto

supplyhisimmediatewants.Butthesearesoonsupplied.Therestis

exertedthathemaywearabettercoat,thathemayclothehiswifewith

gayattire,thathemayhavenotmerelyashelter,butahandsome

habitation,notmerelybreadandfleshtoeat,butthathemaysetitout

withsuitabledecorum.Howmanyofthesethingswouldengagehisattention

ifhelivedinadesertisland,andhadnospectatorofhiseconomy?If

wesurveytheappendagesofourpersons,thereisscarcelyanarticlethat

isnotinsomerespectanappealtothegoodwillofourneighbours,or

arefugeagainsttheircontempt.Itisforthisthatthemerchantbraves

theperilsoftheocean,andthemechanicalinventorbringforththe

treasuresofhismeditation.Thesoldieradvanceseventothecannon，s

mouth,andthestatesmanexposeshimselftotherageofanindignantpeople,

becausehecannotbeartopassthroughlifewithoutdistinctionandesteem.

Exclusivelyofcertainhighermotiveswhichwillhereafterbe

mentioned,(9*)thisisthepurposeofallthegreatexertionsofmankind.

Themanwhohasnothingtoprovideforbuthisanimalwantsscarcelyever

shakesoffthelethargyofhismind;buttheloveofhonourhurriesus

ontothemostincredibleachievements.

Itmustbeadmittedindeedthattheloveofdistinctionappears,from

experienceandthepasthistoryofmankind,tohavebeentheirruling

passion.Buttheloveofdistinctioniscapableofdifferentdirections.

Atpresent,thereisnomorecertainroadtothegeneraldeferenceof

mankindthantheexhibitionofwealth.Thepoet,thewit,theorator,the

saviourofhiscountry,andtheornamentofhisspeciesmayuponcertain

occasionsbetreatedwithneglectandbitingcontempt;butthemanwho

possessesanddisbursesmoneyinprofusioncanscarcelyfailtoprocure

theattendanceoftheobsequiousmanandtheflatterer.Butletusconceive

thiserroneousandperniciousestimateofthingstobereversed.Letus

supposetheavariciousman,whoisdesirousofmonopolizingthemeansof

happiness,andtheluxuriousman,whoexpendswithoutlimitation,in

pamperinghisappetites,thatwhich,instrictjustice,istherightof

another,tobecontemplatedwithasmuchdisapprobationastheyarenow

beheldbyamistakenworldwithdeferenceandrespect.Letusimaginethe

directandunambiguousroadtopublicesteemtobetheacquisitionof

talent,orthepracticeofvirtue,thecultivationofsomespeciesof

ingenuity,orthedisplayofsomegenerousandexpansivesentiment;and

thatthepersonswhopossessthesetalentswereasconspicuouslytreated

withaffectionandesteemasthewealthyarenowtreatedwithslavish

attention.Thisismerely,inotherwords,tosupposegoodsense,andclear

andcorrectperceptions,atsometimetogaintheascendancyintheworld.

Butitisplainthat,underthereignofsuchsentiments,theallurements

thatnowwaituponcostlygratification,wouldbe,forthemostpart,

annihilated.If,throughthespuriousandincidentalrecommendationsit

derivesfromtheloveofdistinction,itisnowrendered,tomany,a

principalsourceofagreeablesensation,underadifferentstateof

opinion,itwouldnotmerelybereducedtoitsintrinsicvalueinpoint

ofsensation,but,inadditiontothis,wouldbeconnectedwithideasof

injustice,unpopularityanddislike.Sosmallisthespacewhichcostly

gratificationsarecalculatedunalterablytofillinthecatalogueof

humanhappiness.

Ithassometimesbeenalleged,asanargumentagainsttheequalrights

ofmeninthepointofwhichwearetreating,'thatthemeritsofmenare

different,andoughttobedifferentlyrewarded，.Butitmaybequestioned

whetherthisproposition,thoughtrue,canwithanyshowofplausibility

beappliedtothepresentsubject.Reasonshavebeenalreadysuggested

toprovethatpositiveinstitutionsdonotaffordthebestmeansfor

rewardingvirtue,andthathumanexcellencewillbemoreeffectually

forwardedbythoseencouragementswhichinevitablyarisefromthesystem

oftheuniverse.(10*)But,exclusivelyofthisconsideration,letus

recollect,uponthegroundsofwhathasjustbeenstated,whatsortof

rewardisthusproposedtoexertion.'Ifyoushowyourselfdeserving,you

shallhavetheessenceofahundredtimesmorefoodthanyoucaneat,and

ahundredtimesmoreclothesthanyoucanwear.Youshallhaveapatent

fortakingawayfromothersthemeansofahappyandrespectableexistence,

andforconsumingtheminriotousandunmeaningextravagance.Jisthis

therewardthatoughttobeofferedtovirtue,orthatvirtueshouldstoop

totake?

Thedoctrineoftheinjusticeofaccumulatedpropertyhasbeenthe

foundationofallreligiousmorality.Itsmostenergeticteachershave

beenirresistiblyledtoasserttheprecisetruthinthisrespect.They

havetaughttherichthattheyholdtheirwealthonlyasatrust,that

theyarestrictlyaccountableforeveryatomoftheirexpenditure,that

theyaremerelyadministrators,andbynomeansproprietorsinchief.(11*)

But,whilereligionthusinculcatedonmankindthepureprinciplesof

justice,themajorityofitsprosessorshavebeenbuttooapttotreat

thepracticeofjustice,notasadebt,whichitoughttobeconsidered,

butasanaffairofspontaneousgenerosityandbounty.

Theeffectwhichisproducedbythisaccommodatingdoctrineistoplace

thesupplyofourwantsinthedisposalofafew,enablingthemtomake

ashowofgenerositywithwhatisnottrulytheirown,andtopurchase

thesubmissionofthepoorbythepaymentofadebt.Theirsisasystem

ofclemencyandcharity,insteadofasystemofjustice.Itfillstherich

withunreasonablepride,bythespuriousdenominationswithwhichit

decoratestheiracts;andthepoorwithservility,byleadingthemto

regardtheslendercomfortstheyobtain,notastheirincontrovertible

due,butasthegoodpleasureandgraceoftheiropulentneighbours.

NOTES:

1.BookII,Chap.II.

2.BookII,Chap.V.

3.BookIII,Chap.III.

4.BookII,Chap.V.

5.Chap.VII.

6.BookIV,Chap.XI.

7.BookI,Chap.V.

8.BookI,Chap.V.

9.Chap.VI.

10.BookV,Chap.XII;BookXI,ChapI.

11.Mark,Ch.X,ver.21;Acts,Ch.II,ver.44,45.SeealsoSwift*sSermon

onMutualSubjection.

CHAPTERII

PRINCIPLESOFPROPERTY

Havingconsideredatlargethequestionofthepersonentitledtotheuse

ofthemeansofbenefitorpleasure,itistimethatweproceedtothe

secondquestion,ofthepersoninwhosehandsthepreservationand

distributionofanyofthesemeanswillbemostjustlyandbeneficially

vested.Anintervalmustinevitablyoccurbetweentheproductionofany

commodityanditsconsumption.Thosethingswhicharenecessaryforthe

accommodationofmaninsocietycannotbeobtainedwithoutthelabourof

man.Whenfitforhisuse,theydonotadmitofbeingleftatrandom,but

requirethatsomecareandvigilanceshouldbeexertedtopreservethem,

fortheperiodofactualconsumption.Theywillnot,inthefirstinstance,

fallintothepossessionofeachindividual,inthepreciseproportion

necessaryforhisconsumption.Whothenistobethefactororwarehouseman

thatistowatchovertheirpreservation,andpresideattheir

distribution?

Thisisstrictlyspeakingthequestionofproperty.Wedonotcallthe

personwhoaccidentallytakeshisdinneratmytabletheproprietorof

whatheeats,thoughitishe,inthedirectandobvioussense,whoreceives

thebenefitofit.Propertyimpliessomepermanenceofexternalpossession,

andincludesinittheideaofapossiblecompetitor.

Ofpropertytherearethreedegrees.

Thefirstandsimplestdegreeisthatofmypermanentrightinthosethings

theuseofwhichbeingattributedtome,agreatersumofbenefitor

pleasurewillresultthancouldhavearisenfromtheirbeingotherwise

appropriated.Itisofnoconsequence,inthiscase,howIcameinto

possessionofthem,theonlynecessaryconditionsbeingtheirsuperior

usefulnesstome,andthatmytitletothemissuchasisgenerally

acquiescedinbythecommunityinwhichIlive.Everymanisunjustwho

conductshimselfinsuchamannerrespectingthesethingsastoinfringe,

inanydegree,uponmypowerofusingthem,atthetimewhentheusing

themwillbeofrealimportancetome.

Ithasalreadyappeared(1*)thatoneofthemostessentialoftherights

ofmanismyrighttotheforbearanceofothers;notmerelythattheyshall

refrainfromeverythingthatmay,bydirectconsequence,affectmylife,

orthepossessionofmypowers,butthattheyshallrefrainfromusurping

uponmyunderstanding,andshallleavemeacertainequalsphereforthe

exerciseofmyprivatejudgement.Thisisnecessarybecauseitispossible

forthemtobewrong,aswellasformetobeso,becausetheexercise

oftheunderstandingisessentialtotheimprovementofman,andbecause

thepainandinterruptionIsufferareasreal,whentheyinfringe,in

myconceptiononly,uponwhatisofimportancetome,asifthe

infringementhadbeen,intheutmostdegree,palpable.Henceitfollows

thatnomanmay,inordinarycases,makeuseofmyapartment,furniture

orgarments,orofmyfood,inthewayofbarterorloan,withouthaving

firstobtainedmyconsent.

Theseconddegreeofpropertyistheempiretowhicheverymanisentitled

overtheproduceofhisownindustry,eventhatpartofittheuseofwhich

oughtnottobeappropriatedtohimself.Ithasbeenrepeatedlyshownthat

alltherightsofmanwhichareofthisdescriptionarepassive.(2*)He

hasnorightofoptioninthedisposalofanythingwhichmayfallinto

hishands.Everyshillingofhisproperty,andevenevery,theminutest,

exertionofhispowershavereceivedtheirdestinationfromthedecrees

ofjustice.Heisonlythesteward.Butstillheisthesteward.These

thingsmustbetrustedtohisaward,checkedonlybythecensorialpower

thatisvested,inthegeneralsense,andfavourableorunfavourable

opinion,ofthatportionofmankindamongwhomheresides.Manischanged

fromthecapablesubjectofillimitableexcellence,intothevilestand

mostdespicablethingthatimaginationcanconceive,whenheisrestrained

fromactinguponthedictatesofhisunderstanding.Allmencannot

individuallybeentitledtoexercisecompulsiononeachother,forthis

wouldproduceuniversalanarchy.Allmencannotcollectivelybeentitled

toexerciseunboundedcompulsion,forthiswouldproduceuniversal

slavery:theinterferenceofgovernment,howeverimpartiallyvested,is,

nodoubt,onlytoberesortedtouponoccasionsofrareoccurrence,and

indispensableurgency.

Itwillreadilybeperceivedthatthissecondspeciesofpropertyisin

alessrigoroussensefundamentalthanthefirst.Itis,inonepointof

view,asortofusurpation.Itvestsinmethepreservationanddispensing

ofthatwhichinpointofcompleteandabsoluterightbelongstoyou.

Thethirddegreeofpropertyisthatwhichoccupiesthemostvigilant

attentioninthecivilizedstatesofEurope.Itisasystem,inwhatever

mannerestablished,bywhichonemanentersintothefacultyofdisposing

oftheproduceofanotherman，sindustry.Thereisscarcelyanyspecies

ofwealth,expenditureorsplendour,existinginanycivilizedcountry,

thatisnot,insomeway,producedbytheexpressmanuallabour,and

corporealindustry,oftheinhabitantsofthatcountry.Thespontaneous

productionsoftheeartharefew,andcontributelittletowealth,

expenditureorsplendour.Everymanmaycalculate,ineveryglassofwine

hedrinks,andeveryornamentheannexestohisperson,howmany

individualshavebeencondemnedtoslaveryandsweat,incessantdrudgery,

unwholesomefood,continualhardships,deplorableignorance,andbrutal

insensibility,thathemaybesuppliedwiththeseluxuries.Itisagross

impositionthatmenareaccustomedtoputuponthemselveswhentheytalk

ofthepropertybequeathedtothembytheirancestors.Thepropertyis

producedbythedailylabourofmenwhoarenowinexistence.Allthat

theirancestorsbequeathedtothemwasamouldypatentwhichtheyshow

asatitletoextortfromtheirneighbourswhatthelabourofthose

neighbourshasproduced.

Itisclearthereforethatthethirdspeciesofpropertyisindirect

contradictiontothesecond.

Themostdesirablestateofhumansocietywouldrequirethatthequantity

ofmanuallabourandcorporalindustrytobeexerted,andparticularly

thatpartofitwhichisnottheuninfluencedchoiceofourownjudgement,

butisimposeduponeachindividualbythenecessityofhisaffairs,should

bereducedwithinasnarrowlimitsaspossible.Foranymantoenjoythe

mosttrivialaccommodation,while,atthesametimeasimilar

accommodationisnotaccessibletoeveryothermemberofthecommunity,

is,absolutelyspeaking,wrong.Allrefinementsofluxury,allinventions

thattendtogiveemploymenttoagreatnumberoflabouringhands,are

directlyadversetothepropagationofha