浙江大學外國語言文化與國際交流學院《712英美文學與語言學》（外國語言學及應用語言學專業(yè)）歷年考研真題及詳解

目錄

2009年浙江大學714英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2008年浙江大學714英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2007年浙江大學734英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2005年浙江大學334英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2004年浙江大學334英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2003年浙江大學423英語語言與語言學考研真題及部分詳解

2009年浙江大學714英語語言與語言學考研

真題及部分詳解

Part1

SectionA

Directions:Readthefollowingtwotexts.Answerthequestionsbelow

eachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWER

SHEET1.(20points)

Passage1

Foodcompanieshavelongwantedmorefreedomtomakenutritional

claimsfortheirproducts.Theylookedonenviouslyasmakersofdietary

supplements,whichoperatedunderlooserregulations,promotedthelife-

enhancingorevenlife-extendingcapabilitiesoftheirproducts.

Afterseveralcourtcasesandpressurefromthefoodindustry,theFood

andDrugAdministrationlighteneduplastyear,decidingtopermithealth

claimsonfoodevenwhenscientificevidencewaslessthanconclusive.But

gettingwhatyouwant,asJohnStuartMillonceobserved,doesnotalways

turnouttobesosatisfying.

Sofar,theagencyhasapprovedclaimsforwalnutsandforagroupof

seventypesofnuts.Allofthenutsaresaidtohavethepotentialtoreducethe

riskofheartdisease.

Somecompaniesseekingthenewclaims,however,aredisappointedby

thelanguagethattheagencyhasallowed,andhavebeenslowtouseit.Few

nutbrandshaverelabeledtheirpackaging,butPlanters,aunitofKraftFoods,

hasbeenusingthelanguageonsomeofitsdry-roastedpeanuts.

Marketersofwalnutsreceivedpermissiontomakehealthclaimslast

July,andtheFDAtoldthecompaniesthattheycouldputthislanguageon

theirproducts:“Supportivebutnotconclusiveresearchshowsthateating1.5

ouncesperdayofwalnutsaspartofadietlowinfatandcholesterolmay

reducetheriskofheartdisease.”

Now,eightmonthsaftertheapproval,fewifanywalnutproductscarrya

printedhealthclaim.Consumerresearchbythewalnutcommission,which

representsmorethan5,000growersandhandlers,suggestedthattheclaim

woulddolittletopromotesales.“Whenyoutelltheconsumer‘supportivebut

notconclusive’and‘may’—withallthosequalifiers,theclaimisnotvery

meaningful,”Mr.Balint,chiefexecutiveoftheCaliforniaWalnut

Commissionsaid.

1.Itcanbeinferredfromthefirstparagraphthatfoodcompanieshave

alwaysbelievedthat______.

A.theirproductshadlife-enhancingfunctions

B.thereshouldbestricterregulationsgoverningdietarysupplements

makers

C.theirproductsweresuperiortothosedietarysupplements

D.nutritionalclaimcouldpromotesalesoftheirproducts

2.Inthepast,FDAwouldn’tpermithealthclaimsonfoodunless

______.

A.companiesproducingthefoodcouldprovideevidenceonitshealth

value

B.therewereconclusiveevidencewithregardtoitshealthvalue

C.scientistsstudyingthefoodallagreedthatitwashealthful

D.itwasprovedincourtthatthefoodwasbeneficialtohealth

3.AlthoughFDAallowedfoodcompaniestomakehealthclaimson

theirproducts,it______.

A.setrestrictionsonthekindoflanguagethattheycoulduse

B.gavepermissiononlytocompaniesmakingwalnuts

C.gavepermissiononlytocompanieswhoseproductscouldreduce

heartdisease

D.onlyallowedPlanters,aunitofKraftFoodstodoso

4.Accordingtotheprintedhealthclaimsonwalnutproducts,consumers

mightinferthat______.

A.eating1.5ouncesofwalnutsperdaycanreducetheriskofheart

disease

B.walnutscandonothingtoreducetheriskofheartdisease

C.walnutsaremoreimportantthanahealthydietinreducingtheriskof

heartdisease

D.scientistsarestillnotquitesureaboutwalnuts’reducingheartdisease

5.Thepassageismainlyabout______.

A.thecontinuousconflictbetweenfoodcompaniesandFDA

B.thetricksusedbyfoodcompaniesinadvertisements

C.FDA’srestrictiononhealthclaimsmadebyfoodcompanies

D.theinfluencescientificresearchhasonfoodcompanies

Passage2

Everyyear,therearethousandsofcollegeprofessorswho,twoorthree

timesaweek,offerwhatislargelythesamebasiclecturecourseinasubject

likebiologyorShakespeare’scomedies.Afewoftheseprofessorsofferthe

kindofbrilliantlecturesthatfillclassroomsandprovidethekindof

educationalexperiencethatstudentsrememberalltheirlives.Manyofthe

restoffersomethingfrommediocretoawful.

So,askedTaylorandAllen,WilliamsCollegephilosophyprofessor,

whydon’tweidentifytheseextraordinarylecturers,puttheirlectureson

CDs,andsellthemtouniversitiesthatcouldsupplementthemwithfaculty-

leddiscussions?Theadvantagesseemedprettyclear.Collegesthatemployed

thecelebritylecturerscouldhelpdefraythecostofsuperstarsalarieswhile

enhancingtheirown!reputations.Andschoolsthatpurchasethelectures

couldlowercostswhileimprovingthequalityoftheireducationaloffering.

Inbusinessterms,thiswasnothingmorecomplicatedthanbringingthe

provenbenefitsofscaleeconomies,andhigh-techdistributiontohigher

education.Butasyoumighthaveguessed,itwasnotexactlywelcomedbyan

establishmentthatpridesitselfonremainingaquaintcottageindustry.

Eliteuniversitiesworriedabout“diluting”theirbrandsand“polluting”

theirmissionbyjoininginaprofit-makingenterprise.Andfaculties

immediatelysawathreatnotonlytotheirjobsandsalaries,butalifestyleand

teachingmodelthathadcossetedthemforcenturies.Soafterseveralyearsof

trying,theeffortwasscrapped.

Therearelotsofreasonswhyhighereducationhasbeenabletoresist

thekindofrationalizationeveryotherindustryhasgonethrough.Mostly

thesehavetodowiththeimperfectpricecompetitionthatcomeswitha

“status”good,particularlyonethatgetslotsofgovernmentsubsidyandhas

beenrisingquicklyineconomicvalue.Butthereisevidencethatallthatmay

beabouttochange.

Withgovernmentcuttingsubsidies,thereisfinallyenoughfinancial

pressureonpubliccollegesthattheyhavenochoicebuttoconsidermaking

fundamentalchangesinthewayteachingisorganized.

Atthesametime,collegesarebeginningtofacerealcompetitionfrom

for-profituniversitiesthatcanchargelowerfeesbymakingskillfuluseof

digitizedlecturesandonlinediscussions.

Obviously,thiscompetitionposesmoreofathreattothird-rankcolleges

thanitdoestoHarvardandGeorgetown.Butgiveittime.

6.Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueofthefirstparagraph?

A.Collegesoffertoomanybasiccourseseveryyear.

B.SubjectssuchasbiologyorShakespeare’scomediesareoutofdate.

C.Manycollegeprofessorsofferunsatisfactorylectures.

D.Studentscannottellagoodlecturefromanawfulone.

7.WhatdidTaylorandAllenadvise?

A.Collegesshouldemploythecelebrityprofessors.

B.Theextraordinaryprofessors’lecturesshouldbeputonCDsandsold

touniversities.

C.Collegesshouldprovidestudentswitheducationalexperiencethat

theywillrememberforever.

D.Collegesshouldimprovethequalityoftheireducationalofferings.

8.Whyaresomeuniversitiesagainsttheadvice?

A.Theybelievecolleges’missionshouldnotberelatedtomaking

profit.

B.Teacherscravefornewlifestyleandteachingmodel.

C.Someuniversitiesareafraidtolosetheirgovernmentsubsidy.

D.Someuniversitiesresisttheideaof“cottageindustry”.

9.Whatisthethreatpubliccollegesarefacingaccordingtotheauthor?

A.DilutedbrandsofEliteuniversities.

B.Fundamentalchangesintheteachingmethods.

C.Government’scuttingsubsidies.

D.Thelowqualityofprofessors.

10.Whatistheauthor’sattitudetowardsdigitalizedlectures?

A.Digitalizedlecturesarenotasgoodastheyseemtobe.

B.Digitalizedlectureswilldeprivecollegestaffoftheirposition.

C.Third-rankcollegesshouldusemoreofthemthanHarvard.

D.Universitiescouldlowercostsbymakingskillfuluseofthem.

SectionB

Directions:Readthearticlebelow.Choosethebestsentencefromthe

listtofilleachofthegaps.Foreachgap(11-20)markoneletter(A-L)on

yourAnswerSheet.Donotmarkanylettertwice.Thereareextrasentences

youdonotneedtouse.(20points)

In1977IrenePepperberg,arecentgraduateofHarvardUniversity,did

somethingverybold.Atatimewhenanimalsstillwereconsidered

automatons,shesetouttofindwhatwasonanothercreature’smindby

talkingtoit.Shebroughtaone-year-oldAfricangrayparrotshenamedAlex

intoherlabtoteachhimtoreproducethesoundsoftheEnglishlanguage.“I

thoughtifhelearnedtocommunicate,Icouldaskhimquestionsabouthow

heseestheworld.”

WhenPepperbergbeganherdialoguewithAlex,whodiedlast

Septemberattheageof31,manyscientistsbelievedanimalswereincapable

ofanythought.(11)______Anypetownerwoulddisagree.Weseethelove

inourdogs’eyesandknowthat,ofcourse,Spothasthoughtsandemotions.

(12)______Gutinstinctisnotscience,anditisalltooeasytoprojecthuman

thoughtsandfeelingsontoanothercreature.How,then,doesascientistprove

thatananimaliscapableofthinking—thatitisabletoacquireinformation

abouttheworldandactonit?

(13)______Theywereseated—sheatherdesk,heontopofhiscage—

inherlab,awindowlessroomaboutthesizeofaboxcar,atBrandeis

University.Newspaperslinedthefloor;basketsofbrighttoyswerestacked

ontheshelves.Theywereclearlyateam—andbecauseoftheirwork,the

notionthatanimalscanthinkisnolongersofanciful.

Certainskillsareconsideredkeysignsofhighermentalabilities:good

memory,agraspofgrammarandsymbols,self-awareness,understanding

others’motives,imitatingothers,andbeingcreative.(14)______Scrubjays

knowthatotherjaysarethievesandthatstashedfoodcanspoil;sheepcan

recognizefaces;chimpanzeesuseavarietyoftoolstoprobetermitemounds

andevenuseweaponstohuntsmallmammals;dolphinscanimitatehuman

postures;thearcherfish,whichstunsinsectswithasuddenblastofwater,can

learnhowtoaimitssquirtsimplybywatchinganexperiencedfishperform

thetask.(15)______

ThirtyyearsaftertheAlexstudiesbegan,Pepperbergandachanging

collectionofassistantswerestillgivinghimEnglishlessons.Thehumans,

alongwithtwoyoungerparrots,alsoservedasAlex’sflock,providingthe

socialinputallparrotscrave.Likeanyflock,thisone—assmallasitwas—

haditsshareofdrama.Alexdominatedhisfellowparrots,actedhuffyat

timesaroundPepperberg,toleratedtheotherfemalehumans,andfellto

piecesoveramaleassistantwhodroppedbyforavisit.

PepperbergboughtAlexinaChicagopetstore.(16)______Giventhat

Alex’sbrainwasthesizeofashelledwalnut,mostresearchersthought

Pepperberg’sinterspeciescommunicationstudywouldbefutile.

(17)______

Chimpanzees,bonobos,andgorillashavebeentaughttousesign

languageandsymbolstocommunicatewithus,oftenwithimpressiveresults.

(18)______Nevertheless,thisisnotthesamethingashavingananimallook

upatyou,openhismouth,andspeak.

Pepperbergwalkedtothebackoftheroom,whereAlexsatontopofhis

cagepreeninghispearlgrayfeathers.Hestoppedatherapproachandopened

hisbeak.

(19)______

“Hehasn’thadhisbreakfastyet,”Pepperbergexplained,“sohe’salittle

putout.”

Alexreturnedtopreening,whileanassistantpreparedabowlofgrapes,

greenbeans,appleandbananaslices,andcornonthecob.

(20)______

“Applestastealittlebitlikebananastohim,andtheylookalittlebitlike

cherries,soAlexmadeupthatwordforthem,”Pepperbergsaid.

A.ThebonoboKanzi,forinstance,carrieshissymbol-communication

boardwithhimsohecan“talk”tohishumanresearchers,andhehas

inventedcombinationsofsymbolstoexpresshisthoughts.

B.Bitbybit,iningeniousexperiments,researchershavedocumented

thesetalentsinotherspecies,graduallychippingawayatwhatwethought

madehumanbeingsdistinctivewhileofferingaglimpseofwhereourown

abilitiescamefrom.

C.Largeanimalsarelimitedmainlytotheriver,streamandlakeareas

duringthewinter,andareeasilyobservedbyskiandsnowmobilevisitors.

D.Theyweresimplymachines,robotsprogrammedtoreacttostimuli

butlackingtheabilitytothinkorfeel.

E.“Somepeopleactuallycalledmecrazyfortryingthis,”shesaid.

“Scientiststhoughtthatchimpanzeeswerebettersubjects,although,of

course,chimpscan’tspeak.”

F.UnderPepperberg’spatienttutelage,Alexlearnedhowtousehis

vocaltracttoimitatealmostonehundredEnglishwords,includingthesounds

forallofthesefoods,althoughhecallsanapplea“banerry.”

G.“Wantgrape,”Alexsaid.

H.Sheletthestore’sassistantpickhimoutbecauseshedidn’twant

otherscientistssayinglaterthatshe’ddeliberatelychosenanespeciallysmart

birdforherwork.

I.“That’swhyIstartedmystudieswithAlex,”Pepperbergsaid.

J.Hedidn’tseekcreditandinfacttriednottobeviewedasanadvocate

ofanyoneidea.

K.Butsuchclaimsremainhighlycontroversial.

L.Butjusttwodecadeslaterthere’saveryrealpossibilityoftheir

extinctionintheNorthwestAtlantic.

M.AndAlextheparrotturnedouttobeasurprisinglygoodtalker.

SectionC

Directions:Readthearticlebelow.Fillineachoftheblankswithone

word.(20points)

Theyspendmoretimeindoctors’officesthanmostparents.They

endurestaresfromstrangersbutfeelasiftheyandtheirchildrenareinvisible.

Theyoftenfind(21)fightingfortheirkids,notjustraisingthem.Earlier,

andperhapsmoredramatically,theywrestlewiththecomplexemotions

(22)comefromknowingthatachildmightnever(23)theloftydreams

thataparentoftenenvisions(24)thechild’sbirth.

(25)theparentsofchildrenwhohaveDownsyndromesaythat

raisingachildwithadisabilitycanalsounlockprofoundandupliftingtruths

aboutthemselves,theirchildrenandthevalueoflifein(26)thatothers

couldneversee.

Suddenly,peoplearelooking.

SinceAlaskaGov.SarahPalin(27)thevicepresidentialraceasSen.

JohnMcCain’sGOPrunningmate,shehasbeenmakingthecasethatshecan

(28)agovernmentandafamilywithchildren,(29)a5-month-oldson

withDownsyndrome.HerdecisiontogivebirthtohersonTrig,(30)a

prenataldiagnosisofhisDownsyndrome,alsounderscoredtosomepeople

herantiabortionstance.

TheattentiononPalinandherfamilyhasspilledovertopeoplesuchas

AdriannePedlikin,aViennamotherofthree,includinga10-year-oldson

whohasDownsyndrome.

“Peoplekeepaskingme,“Sowhatdoyouthink?’I(31)saying,

‘Whatisitexactlyyouwantmyopinionabout?’”Pedlikinsaid.“Peopleare

(32)muchmoreattentiontous….Before,kidswouldstare,but(33)

adults.Everybody’scurious:‘What’sit(34)tohaveakidwithDown

syndrome?’”

ForPedlikinandherhusband,Philip,raisingaboywithDown

syndromecanbetrying.Theylovetheirsondeeply,actasforcefuladvocates

forhimandsayhisbirthhas(35)theirworldviewinapositiveway,but

theyacknowledgethattheir(36)aremuchharder,moreemotionally

wrenchingandoftenlonely.

Other(37)ofchildrenwithDownsyndrome,althoughthankfulthat

medicalapproachesand

anti-discriminationlawshave(38)morepossibilitiesfortheir

childrenthanbefore,saytheirchildren’sdisabilitiesoftenrequiremoreof

themthanotherparentsface.They(39)alotoftimefightingwithschools

toincludetheirchildren,despitetheAmericansWithDisabilitiesEducation

Act.Theyconstantlypushbackagainstthelow(40)peoplehavefortheir

children.

【答案】Part1略

Part2

SectionA

Directions:Defineandexplainbrieflythefollowingterms.(20points)

1.suprasegmentalfeatures

答案：

Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemore

thansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesare

syllable,stress,toneandintonation.

2.phaticfunctionoflanguageuse

答案：

Phaticfunctionoflanguageusereferstotheuseofthelanguagewhich

oftenconsistsofsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionforsettingupa

certainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactsratherthanforexchanging

informationorideas.Forexample,greetings,farewells,andcommentsonthe

weatherinEnglishcouldservethisfunction.

3.theSapir-Whorfhypothesis

答案：

Sapir-Whorfhypothesisconsistsoftwoparts:linguisticdeterminism

andlinguisticrelativity.Linguisticdeterminismreferstothenotionthata

languagedeterminescertainnonlinguisticcognitiveprocesses.Different

languagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingaround,theythinkand

speakdifferently.Linguisticrelativityreferstotheclaimthatthecognitive

processesthataredeterminedaredifferentfordifferentlanguages.Thus,

speakersofdifferentlanguagesaresaidtothinkindifferentways.The

hypothesisisnowinterpretedmainlyintwodifferentways:astrongversion

andaweakone.Thestrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatterns

determinepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;theweakoneholdsthattheformer

influencethelater.Sofar,manyresearchesandexperimentsconducted

providesupporttotheweakversion.

4.imageschema

答案：

Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptual

interactionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoour

experience.

Imageschemaexistsatalevelofabstraction,operatesatalevelof

mentalorganizationbetweenpropositionstructuresandconcreteimage,and

itcanbesubdividedintothefollowingitems:acenter-peripheryschema,a

containmentschema,acycleschema,aforceschema,alinkschema,apart-

wholeschema,anend-of-pathschema,ascaleschemaandaverticality

schema.

5.interlanguage

答案：

Interlanguage.Itreferstothetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondor

foreignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguage.

It’salanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snative

language,andimperfectcomparedwiththetargetlanguage,butnotmere

translationfromthelearner’snativelanguage.Forexample,whenaChinese

studentislearningEnglish,hemaymakeerrorslike“totouchthesociety”.

SectionB

Directions:Answeranysevenofthefollowingquestions.(70points)

1.Whatarethebasicdifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology?

答案：

Bydefinition,phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,includingthe

productionofspeech,whilephonologyisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthe

structure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeof

syllables.Bothphoneticsandphonologyareconcernedwithspeech.

Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalproperties

ofspeechsounds;phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,

organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Phoneticsisthe

studyofactualsounds,thatis,theanalysisandmodelingothespeechsignal;

phonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsounds

andtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatternsindifferentlanguages

orwithinalanguage.Inthissense,phoneticsisconcrete,whilephonologyis

abstract.Whatphoneticsstudiesisthespeechsound,namelyphone,while

whatphonologystudiesisphoneme.

2.Useexamplestodefine“gradableantonymy”,“complementary

antonymy”,and“converseantonymy”.

答案：

Gradableantonymyisthesenserelationbetweentwoanyonymswhich

differintermsofdegree.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.

Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Something

whichisnot“good”isnotnecessarily“bad”.Itmaysimplybe“so-so”or

“average”.

Complementaryantonymyisthesenserelationbetweenthetwo

antonymswhicharecomplementarytoeachother.Thatis,theydividedup

thewholeofsemanticfieldcompletely.Notonlytheassertionofonemeans

thedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.

Notonlyheisalivemeansheisnotdead,heisnotalivealsomeansheis

dead.

Converseantonymyisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembers

ofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthe

reversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.XistheparentofYmeansthe

sameasYisthechildofX.itisthesamerelationshipseenfromtwodifferent

angles.

3.Writeoutthepresupposition(s)containedineachofajudge’s

questionsbelow:

a.Howdidyouknowthatthedefendanthadboughtaknife?

b.Didyouseethemurderedwomanwhenshewastalkingwithher

lover?

c.Whydidyourunawayfromthesceneofthecrimewithoutcallingthe

police?

答案：

Thepresuppositionofaisthattheremustbeadefendant.

Thepresuppositionofbisthatthewomanwasmurderedandshehasa

lover.

Thepresuppositionofcisthatthereisacrimetakingplace.

4.Definetheconceptof“concord”insyntaxwithexamplesfrom

English.

答案：

Itisalsoknownasagreement.Itisasyntacticrelationbetweenwords

andphraseswhicharecompatible,inagivenconduction,byvirtueof

inflectionscarriedbyatleastoneofthem.Therearetwotypesofconcord:

notionalagreementandgrammaticalagreement.Itrequirestheformsoftwo

ormorewordsthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanother

shallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory.

Forexample,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthatgirlandsheinthe

followingdialogue:A:Whoisthatgirl?B:Oh,sheismysister.

5.Useexamplestodescribetheviolationofeachofthefourmaximsof

thecooperativeprincipleandtheirpossibleimplicatures.

答案：

Themaximofquantity:

①Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired

②Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Violationofthemaximofquantity

A:Wheredidyoubuyyourbook?

B:Inabookshop.Itisquitefarfromhere.

Theinformationcontainedinthesecondpartoftheanswerismorethan

required.

Themaximofquality:

①Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse

②Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Violationofthemaximofquality

Heismadeofsteel.

Thisis,atthelevelofwhatissaid,afalsestatement.

Themaximofrelation

①theutteranceshouldberelevant

Violationofthemaximofrelation

A:Theboyisanunwelcomeguest.

B:Well,ah,itisafinedaytoday.

BhasapparentlyrefusedtomakewhathesaidrelevanttoA’spreceding

remarktoavoidsomethingunpleasant.

Themaximofmanner:

①Avoidobscurityofexpression

②Avoidambiguity

③Bebriefandbeorderly.

Violationofthemaximofmanner

A:Let’sgetsomethingtoeatforthekids.

B:OK,butIvetoI-C-EC-R-E-A-M-S.

TheB’sremarkisobviouslyobscureandnotbriefenough.

6.Howdoeshumanlanguagedifferfromthecommunicationsystemsof

animals?

答案：

Thedesignfeaturesoflanguagewhichreferstothedefiningproperties

ofhumanlanguagethattellsthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandany

systemofanimalcommunication.

Arbitrariness:thisisacorefeatureoflanguage,whichmeansthatthere

isnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Duality,whichmeans

thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimary

levelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwo

levels,hasitsownprinciplesoforganization.

Creativitymeanslanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandits

recursiveness.Becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasic

linguisticunitestoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhicharenever

heardbefore.Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtoreferto

thingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmatters,inthepast,

present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

7.Whatconstitutescommunicativecompetence?

答案：

NoamChomskydefinescompetenceasalanguageuser’sunderlying

knowledgeaboutthesystemorrules.InChomsky’sview,thenative

speaker’scompetencecanbecharacterizedasasetofrulesforproducingan

understandingofsentencesinhislanguage.DellHymespointedoutthat

Chomsky’scompetenceisnecessarybutnotsufficientforalearnerto

communicatewithotherssuccessfullyinaspeechcommunity.Inadditionto

grammaticalaccuracy,asuccessfulcommunicationrequiresappropriacyin

thesensethatheknowswhenhespeakswhattowhom.Thusheextendedthe

notionofcompetence,restrictedbyChomskytoknowledgeofgrammar,to

incorporatethepragmaticabilityforlanguageuse.Thisextendedideaof

competenceiscalledcommunicativecompetence.

Thuswecanseethatthecontentofcommunicativecompetenceislarger

thancompetence.Communicativecompetenceusuallyincludestheseveral

parts:grammaticalcompetence,thatisknowledgeofgrammar,vocabulary,

phonology,andsemanticsofalanguage;sociolinguisticcompetence,thatis

theknowledgeoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageanditsnonlinguistic

context,knowinghowtouseandrespondappropriatelytodifferenttypesof

speechacts,andsoforth;discoursecompetence,thatisknowinghowto

beginandendconversationsandstrategiccompetence,thatisknowledgeof

communicationstrategiesthatcancompensateforweaknessinotherareas.

8.Howdotheserialandparallelmodelsaccountforsentence

comprehension?

答案：

Inaserialmodel,thecomprehensionsystemselectsasingle

interpretationonsomebasis,andonlyconsidersotheralternativesifitsfirst

choiceturnsouttobewrong.Whenthesystem'sfirstchoiceiscorrect,this

modelisoptimallyefficient,expendingnoresourcesonpossibilitiesthatturn

outtobeirrelevant.However,ifitsfirstchoiceturnsouttobewrong,

reanalyzingtheambiguitymaybetime-consuminganddisruptive.Ina

parallelmodel,thecomprehensionsystemattemptstomaintainall

possibilities(oratleas