GRE-Argument-講義及例文評價分析

GREargument備考要點一、熟悉題庫，每道題都列提綱，找出邏輯漏洞，掌握其分析技巧；二、學會現(xiàn)成語言套路：尤其是開頭段和結(jié)尾段；三、充分利用原題詞匯和表達，加快寫作速度；四、在上考場前至少練20篇文章；整體結(jié)構(gòu)第1段：歸納論點、論據(jù)，指明邏輯漏洞第2段~第4〔5〕段：分類攻擊各個邏輯錯誤結(jié)尾段：總結(jié)歸納，可給出改進手段Argument破題Argument主體大段三要素；論點(assertion)：注意信號詞should,so,therefore,consequently,hence,thus論據(jù)(evidence)：多用調(diào)查、例子、數(shù)據(jù)等假設(assumption)：階段性結(jié)論〔往往隱式，也使用信號詞-therefore,thus,hence等〕如何寫開頭段: Conclusion+concession+Evidence+EvaluationMerelybasedonunfounded/unreliable/fallaciousassumptionsandquestionable/dubious/suspicious/unsubstantiatedevidence,theauthor/arguerdrawstheconclusionthat____.Tosubstantiate(support)thisconclusion,thearguerpointsout/cites_______asevidence.Inaddition(Additionally),theauthorindicates(infers)that____.Furthermore,hecitestheresultofarecentsurvey(____asatypicalexample)insupport(favor)ofthisrecommendationAtfirstglance(讓步邏輯)/admittedly/concededly,thisargumentappearstobesomewhatconvincing,butfurtherreflectionrevealsthatitomitssomesubstantialconcernsthatshouldbeaddressed.Fromthelogicalperspective,thisargumentsuffersfromNlogicalflaws.Inthisargument,theauthorconcludes/makesaconclusionabout___that____.Tosupporthisconclusion,theauthorpointsoutthat____.Inaddition,heinfersthat____.Furthermore,thearguercites____asatypicalexampleinsupportofthisrecommendation.However,thesealonedonotconstitutealogicalargumentinfavorofitsconclusion.Failingtoprovidemoreconvincing/solidsupport,thisargumentisbynomeansinvulnerable/cogent.如何寫正文段正文段數(shù)量：3-4段〔每段攻擊一個邏輯錯誤〕如何寫正文段段落之間保持連貫：善用邏輯連接結(jié)構(gòu)Firstly,secondly,…lastly…Themajorquestionableassumptionintheargument…;Anotherproblematicpostulationis…;Additionally,thearguergroundlesslypresumes…正文段首句Thethreshold/firstandforemost/fundamentalproblemwiththisargumentisthat____.Anotherproblemthatweakensthelogicofthisargumentisthat____.Lastly,itisnecessarytopointoutthelastflawinvolvedinthisargumentthat____.正文段順序攻擊邏輯錯誤攻擊邏輯錯誤之間的順序順序式攻擊主次式攻擊讓步式攻擊〔邏輯排列〕A不成立即便A成立，B也不成立即便A、B成立，C也不成立論證方式例證法：forexample，forinstance假設法/假想推測法：ifitturnsoutthat…then…/suppose…then…/itmightwellhappensthat…theninthiscase…/itisperfectlypossiblethat…/perhapsthat/chancesarethat…inthatcase…/undersuchcircumstances/scenario,…讓步法：Whileitmaybetruethat…/although____canbringabout…/grantedthat…/unfortunately/nevertheless/however/itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthat…/itisnotguaranteedthat…論證方式定義攻擊法：evidence中的關(guān)鍵概念不清或錯誤反證法：假設argument正確，推出與argument提供數(shù)據(jù)相矛盾之結(jié)論無證據(jù)攻擊：argument未提供evidence的來源，因此evidence自然失去credibility如何寫結(jié)尾段

Evaluation+Concession+possibleimprovement〔虛擬語氣〕Tosumup,thisarguerfailstosubstantiatehisclaimthat____,becausetheevidencecitedintheanalysisdoesnotlendstrong(credible)supporttowhatthearguermaintains.Toconvincethe___,heneedstoprovidemoreconvincing/solid/reliable/substantialevidenceconcerning_______.結(jié)尾段：possibleimprovementsTomaketheargumentmoreconvincing,theauthorwouldhavetoprovidemoreinformationin/withregardto____.Additionally,hewouldhavetodemonstratethat____.Iftheargumenthadincludedmoreinformation/morereliable____in/withregardto______,itwouldhavebeenmorethoroughlyandlogicallyacceptable.sample-a1616、InsurveysMasonCityresidentsrankwatersports(swimming,boating,andfishing)amongtheirfavoriterecreationalactivities.TheMasonRiverflowingthroughthecityisrarelyusedforthesepursuits,however,andthecityparkdepartmentdevoteslittleofitsbudgettomaintainingriversiderecreationalfacilities.Foryearstherehavebeencomplaintsfromresidentsaboutthequalityoftheriver'swaterandtheriver'ssmell.Inresponse,thestatehasrecentlyannouncedplanstocleanupMasonRiver.Useoftheriverforwatersportsis,therefore,suretoincrease.Thecitygovernmentshouldforthatreasondevotemoremoneyinthisyear'sbudgettoriversiderecreationalfacilities.Writearesponseinwhichyouexaminethestatedand/orunstatedassumptionsoftheargument.Besuretoexplainhowtheargumentdependsontheseassumptionsandwhattheimplicationsarefortheargumentiftheassumptionsproveunwarranted.argument1616、InsurveysMasonCityresidentsrankwatersports(swimming,boating,andfishing)amongtheirfavoriterecreationalactivities.TheMasonRiverflowingthroughthecityisrarelyusedforthesepursuits,however,andthecityparkdepartmentdevoteslittleofitsbudgettomaintainingriversiderecreationalfacilities.Foryearstherehavebeencomplaintsfromresidentsaboutthequalityoftheriver'swaterandtheriver'ssmell.Inresponse,thestatehasrecentlyannouncedplanstocleanupMasonRiver.Useoftheriverforwatersportsis,therefore,suretoincrease.Thecitygovernmentshouldforthatreasondevotemoremoneyinthisyear'sbudgettoriversiderecreationalfacilities.Writearesponseinwhichyouexaminethestatedand/orunstatedassumptionsoftheargument.Besuretoexplainhowtheargumentdependsontheseassumptionsandwhattheimplicationsarefortheargumentif

theassumptionsproveunwarranted.analysisA:市民都喜歡玩水?！瞫urveyshows〕-surveyresultsB:市民現(xiàn)在很少到M河玩水?！瞨arelyused〕-factsC:市政府花在M河邊娛樂設施上的錢很少〔littleofbudget〕-factsD:市民埋怨M河水質(zhì)不好?！瞔omplaints〕-factsE:州政府已經(jīng)決定清潔M河流。〔announcedplans〕-factsF：到M河玩水的人會變多。〔suretoincrease〕-assumptionG：市政府應該增加M河邊的娛樂設施預算。(should)-claimanalysisA:市民都喜歡玩水。〔surveyshows〕-surveyresultsB:市民現(xiàn)在很少到M河玩水?！瞨arelyused〕-factsC:市政府花在M河邊娛樂設施上的錢很少〔littleofbudget〕-factsD:市民埋怨M河水質(zhì)不好。〔complaints〕-factsE:州政府已經(jīng)決定清潔M河流。〔announcedplans〕-factsF：到M河玩水的人會變多。〔suretoincrease〕-assumptionG：市政府應該增加M河邊的娛樂設施預算。(should)-claimsampleresponsep1Inthisargument,theargueradvocatesthatMasonCitygovernmentshoulddevotemoremoneyinthisyear’sbudgettoriversiderecreationalfacilities.Althoughthisargumentmightseemreasonableatthefirstglance,itisinfactunconvincing/feeble/unpersuasive/implausible.Thereasonsarestatedasfollows.sampleresponsep1Inthisargument,theargueradvocatesthatMasonCitygovernmentshoulddevotemoremoneyinthisyear’sbudgettoriversiderecreationalfacilities.Althoughthisargumentmightseemreasonableatthefirstglance,itisinfactunconvincing/feeble/unpersuasive/implausible.Thereasonsarestatedasfollows.題目既然要求指出其中的assumptions，在第一段最好明確點出。sampleresponsep1Inthisargument,theargueradvocatesthatMasonCitygovernmentshoulddevotemoremoneyinthisyear’sbudgettoriversiderecreationalfacilities.Althoughthisargumentmightseemreasonableatthefirstglance,itisinfactunconvincing/feeble/unpersuasive/implausiblebecauseitencompassesunreliableassumptionsandtenuousconnectionsbetweenevidenceandconclusion,whicharelistedasfollows.p2Inthefirstplace,thearguerassumesthatsurveysaboutresidents’favoriterecreationalactivitiesaresufficient.However,unlessthesurveyorssampledasufficientnumberofresidentsinMasonCityanddidsorandomlyacrosstheentirespectrum,thesurveyresultsarenotreliabletogaugetheresidents’fondnessofwatersportsgenerally.Forexample,iftherespondentsincludedonlythosewholikewatersports,thentheresultswouldnodoubtsuggestswimming,boatingandfishingarefavoriterecreationalactivities.Evenifthesurveyissufficient,thefavoriteofwatersportscouldbetheloveofwatchingsuchgamesonTVratherthanperformingbythemselves,whichwouldrendertheresultsofthesurveymeaningless.p2Inthefirstplace,thearguerassumesthatsurveysaboutresidents’favoriterecreationalactivitiesaresufficient.However,unlessthesurveyorssampledasufficientnumberofresidentsinMasonCityanddidsorandomlyacrosstheentirespectrum,thesurveyresultsarenotreliabletogaugetheresidents’fondnessofwatersportsgenerally.Forexample,iftherespondentsincludedonlythosewholikewatersports,thentheresultswouldnodoubtsuggestswimming,boatingandfishingarefavoriterecreationalactivities.Evenifthesurveyissufficient,thefavoriteofwatersportscouldbetheloveofwatchingsuchgamesonTVratherthanperformingbythemselves,whichwouldrendertheresultsofthesurveymeaningless.有些細節(jié)的語言表述不清楚或不夠精煉。p2Inthefirstplace,thearguerassumesthatsurveysaboutresidents’favoriterecreationalactivitiesaresufficient.However,unlessthesurveyssampledasufficientnumberofresidentsinMasonCityanddidsorandomlyacrosstheentirespectrum,theirresultsarenotreliabletogaugetheresidents’generalfondnessofwatersports.Forexample,iftherespondentsincludedonlythosewholikewatersports,thentheresultswouldnodoubtsuggestswimming,boatingandfishingaretheirfavoriterecreationalactivities.Evenifthesurveysarereliable,therespondentsmayonlylovewatchingsuchgamesonTVratherthan

participatinginthem,whichwouldrendertheresultsofthesurveysmeaninglessinbackingthebuildingofrecreationalfacilities.p3Inthesecondplace,thearguerassumesthatthemorebudgetgovernmentdevotetoriversiderecreationalfacilities,thecleanertheMasonRiverwillbe.Nevertheless,thereisnoguaranteethatitisnecessarilythecase,andthearguerdoesnotsupplyanyevidencetoconfirmthisassumption.Itisquitepossiblethatthequalityandthesmelloftheriver’swaterwilldeterioratewhentherecreationalfacilitiesarefrequentlyused,sothatthebudgettomaintainingriversiderecreationalfacilitiescouldevenbecounterproductivetothequalityofMasonRiver.p3Inthesecondplace,thearguerassumesthatthemorebudgetgovernmentdevotetoriversiderecreationalfacilities,thecleanertheMasonRiverwillbe.Nevertheless,thereisnoguaranteethatitisnecessarilythecase,andthearguerdoesnotsupplyanyevidencetoconfirmthisassumption.Itisquitepossiblethatthequalityandthesmelloftheriver’swaterwilldeterioratewhentherecreationalfacilitiesarefrequentlyused,sothatthebudgettomaintainingriversiderecreationalfacilitiescouldevenbecounterproductivetothequalityofMasonRiver.嚴重錯誤：原文并沒有明確這個assumption，自然對其辯駁也是無用且錯誤的。p4Lastbutnottheleast,eveniftheevidenceturnsouttosupporttheforegoingassumptions,thearguerjustsimplyassumesthatthedisappointingqualityoftheriverishorribleenoughforthegovernmenttodecidetodealwith/cleanupitinthisyearandneitheranyconclusiveevidencenoranyanecdotalevidenceisprovidedtoaffirmthisassumption.Itisreasonabletodoubtthatwhatthearguerassumeswillnothappeninreality.ItisjustaspossiblethatMasonCitygovernmentwoulddevotemoremoneytoriversidefacilitiesinseveralyearsafter.Toreachthecitedconclusion,thearguermustexplainwhynoneofthesealternativesisabletohappen.p4Lastbutnottheleast,eveniftheevidenceturnsouttosupporttheforegoingassumptions,thearguerjustsimplyassumesthatthedisappointingqualityoftheriverishorribleenoughforthegovernmenttodecidetodealwith/cleanupitinthisyearandneitheranyconclusiveevidencenoranyanecdotalevidenceisprovidedtoaffirmthisassumption.

Itisreasonabletodoubtthatwhatthearguerassumeswillnothappeninreality.ItisjustaspossiblethatMasonCitygovernmentwoulddevotemoremoneytoriversidefacilitiesinseveralyearsafter.Toreachthecitedconclusion,thearguermustexplainwhynoneofthesealternativesisabletohappen.語言不夠精煉、準確p4Lastbutnottheleast,eveniftheevidenceturnsouttosupporttheforegoingassumptions,thearguerhastilyassumesthatthestategovernmenttocleanuptheriversoon,forwhichnotashredofevidenceisprovided.ItisjustaspossiblethatMasonCitygovernmentwoulddevotemoremoneytoriversidefacilitiesinseveralyearsafter.Toreachthecitedconclusion,thearguermustexplainwhynoneofthesealternativesisabletohappen.語言不夠精煉、準確p4Lastbutnottheleast,eveniftheevidenceturnsouttosupporttheforegoingassumptions,thearguerhastilyassumesthatthestategovernmenttocleanuptheriversoon,forwhichnotashredofevidenceisprovided.

ItisjustaspossiblethatMasonCitygovernmentwoulddevotemoremoneytoriversidefacilitiesinseveralyearsafter.Toreachthecitedconclusion,thearguermustexplainwhynoneofthesealternativesisabletohappen.嚴重錯誤：題目中是stategovernment打算投資改善水質(zhì)，而非citygovernment。p4Lastbutnottheleast,eveniftheevidenceturnsouttosupporttheforegoingassumptions,thearguerhastilyassumesthatthestategovernmenttocleanuptheriversoon,forwhichnotashredofevidenceisprovided.Itisreasonablylikelythatthestatecouncildoesnotconsiderthisanurgencyandwouldsettocleaningtheriverupseveralyearslater.p5Tosumup,thearguer’sargumentmentionedaboveisnotbasedonvalidevidenceorsoundreasoning,neitherofwhichisdispensableforaconclusiveargument.Inordertodrawabetterconclusion,thearguershouldreasonmoreconvincingly,citesomeevidencethatismorepersuasive,andtakeeverypossibleconsiderationintoaccount.p5Tosumup,thearguer’sargumentmentionedaboveisnotbasedonvalidandsufficient

evidenceorsoundreasoning,neitherofwhichisdispensableforaconclusiveargument.Inordertodrawasolidconclusion,thearguershouldreasonmoreconvincingly,citemorereliableandpersuasiveevidence.Otherwise,itishighlyunlikelytopersuadethecitygovernmenttoallocateincreased

funding.strengthsembeddingofsubordinateelements

effectivewordchoicescohesioncarefulorganization

weaknessesfailstoincludeseveralimportantassumptionsandimplicationsmisunderstandingofthetopicleadstounsupportedassertionsofitsown

unwarrantedassumptionsthatarenotpartoftheoriginalargument

relativelylowlanguageefficiencyandaccuracyscore:2-3sampleessayscore6-p1WhileitmaybetruethattheMasonCitygovernmentoughttodevotemoremoneytoriversiderecreationalfacilities,theauthor'sargumentdoesnotmakeacogentcaseforincreasedresourcesbasedonriveruse.Itiseasytounderstandwhycityresidentswouldwantacleanerriver,butthisargumentisrifewithholesandassumptions,andthus,notstrongenoughtoleadtoincreased

funding.(67words)p2Citingsurveysofcityresidents,theauthorreportscityresident'sloveofwatersports.Itisnotclearabout,however,thescopeandvalidityofthatsurvey.Forexample,thesurveycouldhaveaskedresidentsiftheypreferusingtheriverforwatersportsorwouldliketoseeahydroelectricdambuilt,whichmayhaveswayedresidentstowardriversports.Thesamplemaynothavebeenrepresentativeofcityresidents,askingonlythoseresidentswholiveupontheriver.Thesurveymayhavebeen10pageslong,with2questionsdedicatedtoriversports.Wejustdonotknow.

Unlessthesurveyisfullyrepresentative,valid,andreliable,itcannotbeusedtoeffectivelybacktheauthor's

argument.(119words)p3Additionally,theauthorimpliesthatresidentsdonotusetheriverforswimming,boating,andfishing,despitetheirprofessedinterest,becausethewaterispollutedandsmelly.Whileapolluted,smellyriverwouldlikelycutdownonriversports,aconcreteconnectionbetweentheresident'slackofriveruseandtheriver'scurrentstateisnoteffectivelymade.Thoughtherehavebeencomplaints,wedonotknowiftherehavebeennumerouscomplaintsfromawiderangeofpeople,orperhapsfromoneortwoindividualswhomadenumerouscomplaints.Tostrengthenhis/herargument,theauthorwouldbenefitfromimplementinganormedsurveyaskingawiderangeofresidentswhytheydonotcurrentlyusethe

river.(117words)p4Buildingupontheimplicationthatresidentsdonotusetheriverduetothequalityoftheriver'swaterandthesmell,theauthorsuggeststhatarivercleanupwillresultinincreasedriverusage.Iftheriver'swaterqualityandsmellresultfrompollutantswhichcanbecleaned,thismaybetrue.

Forexample,ifthebadwaterqualityandsmellarecausedbypollutionbyfactoriesalongtheriver,thisconceivablycouldberemedied.Butifthequalityandodoraretheresultofsomenaturalmineraldepositsinthewaterorsurroundingrock,thismaynotbetrue.Therearesomebodiesofwaterwhichemitastrongsmellofsulfurduetothegeologicalfeaturesofthearea.Thisisnotsomethinglikelytobefixedbyacleanup.Consequently,arivercleanupmayhavenoimpactuponriverusage.Regardlessofwhethertheriver'squalitycanbeimprovedornot,theauthordoesnoteffectivelyshowaconnectionbetweenwaterqualityandriver

usage.(170words)p5Aclean,beautiful,saferiveroftenaddstoacity'spropertyvaluesandleadstoincreasedtourismandrevenuefromthosewhocometotakeadvantageoftheriver,andabetteroverallqualityoflifeforresidents.Forthesereasons,citygovernmentmaydecidetoinvestinimprovingriversiderecreationalfacilities.However,thisauthor'sargumentisnotlikelytopersuadethecitygovernmenttoallocateincreased

funding.(67words)Commonlogicalfallacies調(diào)查類問題1.選擇性樣本：數(shù)據(jù)：在GRE考場門口抽樣調(diào)查，問學生對于GRE考試的感受，85%的學生認為這個考試很變態(tài)。階段性假設：大局部學生認為GRE考試很變態(tài)。結(jié)論：ETS應該降低GRE考試難度。問題：GRE考試門口調(diào)查學生=學生？數(shù)據(jù)不全面，數(shù)據(jù)人群無法反映假設或結(jié)論人群選擇性樣本Inasurveyoffirst-yearstudentsataleadinglawschool,mostagreedwiththestatementthatearningahighsalarywaslessimportanttothemthanjobsatisfaction.

first-yearstudents≠lawschoolgraduates可以進一步推論：一年級學生較為理想化，而畢業(yè)生那么更為實際；Eventhoughlargefirmsusuallyoffermuchhighersalaries,lawschoolgraduatesaremorelikelytochoosetoworkforthesmallerfirmsbecausetheyexperiencegreaterjobsatisfactionatsmallerfirms.

常用表達Thesurveyfailstoeffectivelycoverthetargetgroup…Thesubjectsofthesurveydonotrespondtothetargetgroup…Adisparitycanbefoundbetweenthesubjectsofthesurveyandthetargetgroupoftheconclusion.survey類其他錯誤2.調(diào)查沒有意義3.樣本數(shù)量缺乏4.調(diào)查問題設計不適當5.開展調(diào)查的機構(gòu)沒有可信度6.答復者答復很可能不老實7.回應者沒有代表性〔類同選擇性樣本〕8.調(diào)查是否過舊？Therespondentsmustbestatisticallysignificantinnumberandrepresentativeoftheoverall____.Wearenotinformedwhetherthesurveyresponsesoneanonymous,evenconfidential,iftheywerenot,….Aretherespondentsbeingforthright?8.調(diào)查是否過舊？Allweknowinthiseditorialisthatthesurveywasrecentlypublished.Thelessrecentthesurveyitself,thelessreliabletheresultstoindicatecurrentinterestlevels.survey分析保證全面性與隨機性的調(diào)查步驟：1.將調(diào)查對象進行有意義的分組：比方農(nóng)村、城市等等；所謂有意義是指對調(diào)查結(jié)果有意義，比方競選中，按照喜好的顏色分組就沒有太大意義；2.確定每組在總數(shù)中的比例；(絕對數(shù)值相對數(shù)值的考慮)3.按照比例在每組隨機抽取樣品，以競選舉例；數(shù)據(jù)信息問題數(shù)據(jù)模糊數(shù)據(jù)不完整Thearguertellsusthat“many”(anumberof)____.However,hefailstoindicatethepercentageof____,sothisevidenceisfartoovaguetobemeaningful.Theauthorfailstoprovideinformationregardingtheabsolutenumberof____.survey問題分析例Unless(ifnot)thesurveysampledasufficientnumberof____anddidsorandomlyacrosstheentirespectrum,thesurveyresultsarenotreliabletogauge(value)____generally.Thenumberofrespondents(samples),initself,doesnotensurethesurvey’srepresentativenesssurvey問題分析例Forexample,ifthesamplesincludedonly____,thentheresultswouldnodoubtsuggest____.______wouldaccountforonlyalittlepercentage,whichwouldrendertheresultsofthesurveymeaningless.SURVEY類詞匯匯總名詞類：survey,questionnaire,statisticalstudy,sample,specimen,sampling,accidentalsampling,classsampling,randomness,randomness,quantity,quality,statistic,poll,absolutevalue,percentage,validity,statisticalvalidity,range,spectrum,scope動詞類: select,choose,sample,investigate,examine,scrutinize,comprise形容詞/副詞類: valid,authentic,random,quantitative,statistical,representative,characteristic,typical,far-ranging,comprehensive,extensive,generally,universally,rifelysufficientevidenceandnecessarycondition充分必要條件錯誤(1)SufficientEvidence充分條件充分條件錯誤標志詞:Once,will預測〔將來時態(tài)〕Theargumentassumestoohastilythat____willnecessarilyresultinthebehaviorthattheargumentpredicts.Perhaps,____.Moreover,____.ThefactthatAisnotsufficientforthepredictionthat__B__.必要條件(necessarycondition)標志詞: without,only,necessarily充分必要條件類的詞匯匯總名詞類: condition,requirement,necessity,sufficientcondition,sufficiency,outcome,aftermath(結(jié)果)動詞類: constitute,establish,suffice,resultin,include,render,exclude,ruleout形容詞/副詞類: sufficient,necessary,perforce,necessarily,requiredTheeditor’srecommendationdependsontheassumptionthatnofactorsotherthan__A__caused__B__.However,commonsenseinformsmethatthisassumptionisapoorone.Amyriadofotherfactors,including__C__or__D__mightbethecauseofB.Tobespecific,____.Withoutrulingouttheseandotherpossiblecauses,theeditorcannotjustifiablyconcludethatonlyby(doing)與A相關(guān)can與B相關(guān).錯誤類比

Theresultofcomparisonmakesnosenseforitdoesnotconsiderothervariablesofbothsides.Withouttakingotherexternalconditionsintoaccount,itwouldbeprematuretostepfromtheplausiblecontrast.因果關(guān)系類錯誤無因果關(guān)系錯誤標志詞: for,cause,reason,since,link,correlation,connection,therefore,andThearguerfailstoestablishthecausalrelationshipbetweenthefactthat____andtheclaimthat____.Thisargumentisunacceptableunlessthereiscompellingevidencetosupporttheconnectionbetweenthesetwoevents.Perhaps,forexample,____resultsfrom____.Thearguerfailstoestablishthecausalrelationshipbetween__A__and__B__.Itishighlypossiblethatotherfactorscontributeto__B__.Forinstance,__B__mighthaveresultedfrom__C__.Itisalsolikelythat__D__caused__B__.Lackingevidencethatlinks__A__to__B__,itispresumptuoustosuggestthatAwasresponsiblefor__B__.因果關(guān)系類錯誤(2) 時序性因果錯誤標志詞: because,afterthis,sincethen,therefore,consequence,consequentlyBasedonthefactthat__A__occurredafter__B__,theeditorinfersthat__B__shouldberesponsiblefor__A__.However,thesequenceoftheseevents,initself,doesnotsufficetoprovethattheearlierdevelopmentcausedthelaterone.Itmighthaveresultedfromsomeothereventsinstead:__C,D,E__tojustafewpossibilities.Withoutrulingoutscenariossuchasthese,theeditorcannotestablishacause-and-effectrelationshipbetween__A__and__B__uponwhichtheeditor’srecommendationdepends.因果關(guān)系類錯誤concurrence同時性因果錯誤，Theargumentobservesacorrelationbetween__A__and__B__,thenconcludesthattheformeristhecauseofthelatter.However,theargumentfailstoruleoutotherpossibleexplanationsfor__B__.Forexample,____.Anyofthesefactorsmightleadto__B__.Withoutrulingoutallotherfactorsitisunfairtoconcludethat__A__isresponsiblefor__B__.Theauthorcommitsafallacyofconcurrenceinassumingthat____.因果關(guān)系類錯誤(4)confusethecauseandeffectItispossiblethatthemayorhasconfusedcausewitheffectrespectingtherecentdevelopmentsinOceanView.Perhaps__A__wasaresponseto__B__.Sincethemayorhasfailedtoaccountforthispossibility,theclaimthat---____iscompletelyunwarranted.因果關(guān)系類錯誤5)ignoringotherpossiblecausesThemayorfailstoaccountforotherpossiblecauseof__B__.__B__mighthavebeendueto__C,D,…__.Withoutrulingouttheseandotheralternativeexplanationsfor__B__,themayorcannotreasonablyinferbasedonthosetrendsthat____.co-occurrenceandcausalrelationship標志詞匯總: meanwhile,also,with,during,under,over,parallel(伴隨)名詞類: relation,causation,relevancy(關(guān)聯(lián)性),conjunction,connection,nexus,association,linkage動詞類: associate,link,connect,relateto,ignore,neglect,losesightof形容詞類:relational,relevant,causal,related,sequent,traceable(追溯)因果類可替換表達1TheauthorattemptstoestablishacausalcorrelationbetweenthefactthatA…andtheclaimthat…B.thisargumentisunacceptableifthereisnocompellingevidencetosupporttheconnectionbetweenthesetwoevents.

2TheauthorfailstoestablishthecausalrelationshipbetweenAandB.

TheauthorfailstoconvinceusthatAcontributestoB.

Theauthorprovidesnoconvincing/compelling/persuasive/well-reasonedevidencethatAisthereasonforB.

3Moreover,theauthorhasnotshownanycorrelation,letalone/nottomentionacause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenAandB.

4Inshort,withoutrulingoutthepossibleexplanationsforB(result),sbcannot/failstojustifiablyconcludethatAisthecauseof/reasonforB.

5.Thefactthat…mightbeexplainedbyalargevarietyofreasons/factors.6.IcannotacceptthefactthatAisresponsibleforB.

7.AcorrelationbetweenAandBdoesnotnecessarilyinferacausalrelation.ItisentirelypossiblethattherearesomeotherimportantfactorscontributingtoB,suchas…..8.Whileahighcorrelationisapieceofstrongevidenceofacausalrelationship,itisinitselfnotsufficient;therefore,theauthorhastoaccountforsomeotherpossiblefactslike…

9.adirectcorrelationbetweenAandBdoesnotnecessarilyprovethattheformercausesthelatter.

10.Lackingevidencetoconfirmthisassumption,itisentirelyimpossiblethatAisthereasonofB

11.SincethearticlefailstoaccountforthisalternativeexplanationforB,thearticle’sauthorcannotmakeanysoundconclusionthatAisaccreditedasthereasonofB.

4 changingscopefallacies范圍變化類錯誤(1) 偷換概念argument167AthresholdprobleminvolvesthedefinitionofA.Thearguerfailstodefinethiscriticalterm.If__AisdefinedasB,thenhow__C__,isirrelevanttowhether__B__.Inshort,withoutacleardefinitionof__A__,itisimpossibletoassessthestrengthoftheargument.(2) 由個體放大為整體錯誤argument8Theargumentresetsontheassumptionthat個體案例typifynationwide整體情況.Ifthisisnotthecase,thenitisentirelypossiblethat在另一個地方，上述個案的結(jié)果不會發(fā)生相同的情況Thus,lackingmoremarketinginformationabout____nationwide,itisdi