Lesson16Review

1、DesignFeatures ofLanguage,Arbitrariness,Arbitrariness Duality,Arbitrariness Duality Creativity (Productivity),Arbitrariness Duality Creativity (Productivity) Displacement,Arbitrariness Duality Creativity (Productivity) Displacement Cultural Transmission,ElementsofLinguistics,Phonetics,Phonetics,the

2、study of the production, transmis-sion and perception of speech sounds,Articulatory Phonetics,the study of human speech organsand how speech sounds are produced,PHARYNGEAL,NASAL,ORAL,The Three Speaking Cavities,Points of Articulation,the relatively stationary pointsalong the top of the mouth usedin

3、the pronunciation of consonants, an articulator approaches or contacts one or more of these points to produce consonantal sounds,VELAR,ALVEOLAR,Points of Articulation,LABIAL,POSTALVEOLAR,DENTAL,the more moveable parts of the mouth which approach or contact thevarious points of articulationto produce

4、 consonantal sounds,Articulators,Articulators,BACK,BLADE,TIP,LABIAL,the manner in which a soundis actually produced, based on eitherthe relationship of the articulator tothe point of articulation or on someother simultaneous vocal feature.,Manners of Articulation,Manners of Articulation,Plosives (St

5、ops),Fricatives,Laterals,Nasals,Trills,Flaps,Approximants,Voicing,Voiced Phone,The vocal cords are close together,The Glottis,The Vocal Cords,Voiceless Phone,The Glottis,The Vocal Cords,The vocal cords are separated,Voiceless,Voiced,Aspirated a sound which distinguishes the meaning of words,allophon

6、e,a unit of phonetic sound which is a sub-member of a phoneme,Definitions,Suspicious Pairs of Sounds,A suspicious pair is a pair of phones which have phonetically similar segments and which have commonly been found to be allophones of a single phoneme in many languages of the world,Minimal Pairs,A m

7、inimal pair is a pair of semantically different words in a given language that are phonetically different in only one feature,English Vowel Examples,English Consonant Examples,The four basic premises on which phonemic analysis is based,1. Sounds tend to be modified by their environments. (sounds occ

8、urring before and after them),The four basic premises on which phonemic analysis is based,1. Sounds tend to be modified by their environments. (sounds occurring before and after them),2. Sounds systems tend to be phonetically symmetrical.,The four basic premises on which phonemic analysis is based,1

9、. Sounds tend to be modified by their environments. (sounds occurring before and after them),2. Sounds systems tend to be phonetically symmetrical.,3. Sounds tend to fluctuate.,1. Write the language data phonetically,2. Make a phonetic chart of all the sounds in your phonetic data,3. List the non-su

10、spicious sounds in data,4. List the suspicious pairs of sounds,5. State the phonetic differences between the pairs,6. Follow Separating, Uniting and Interpretive Procedures,7. Lists proofs and hypotheses for separating or uniting,8. Rewrite the phonetic data phonemically,6. Follow Separating, Unitin

11、g and Interpretive Procedures,Procedure for Phonemic Analysis,Uniting Procedure (M.E.D.),Separating Procedure (C.A.E.),If you cant find a minimal pair, try to find a reason for uniting suspicious pairs by stating a hypothesis account-ing for the phonetic differences in the suspicious pairs,If you ar

12、e unable to unite the phones, try to find the suspicious pairs Contrasting in Analogous Environments (C.A.E.), indicating the phones are separate phonemes,Separating Procedure (C.I.E.),Try to find the suspicious pairs in the phonetic language data Contrasting in Identical Environments (C.I.E.), also

13、 called a MINIMAL PAIR, in order to provethat the phones are separate phonemes.,Kabala Dialect (Mexico),Kabala Dialect (Mexico),Separating Procedure (C.I.E.),Try to find the suspicious pairs in the phonetic language data Contrasting in Identical Environments (C.I.E.), also called a MINIMAL PAIR, in

14、order to provethat the phones are separate phonemes.,Kabala Dialect (Mexico),Are there minimal pairs (C.I.E) for these suspicious pairs in the phonetic data?,Yes,Yes,No,No,Uniting Procedure (M.E.D.),If you cant find a minimal pair, try to find a reason for uniting suspicious pairs by stating a hypot

15、hesis account-ing for the phonetic differences in the suspicious pairs,Separating Procedure (C.I.E.),Try to find the suspicious pairs in the phonetic language data Contrasting in Identical Environments (C.I.E.), also called a MINIMAL PAIR, in order to provethat the phones are separate phonemes.,Kaba

16、la Dialect (Mexico),Is there any reason to unite these two pairs based on mutually exclusive distribuation?,No, because both sounds occur in similar environments 1. word initial 2. before e,Yes, because the two sounds always have different phonetic environments,Kabala Dialect (Mexico),Is there any r

17、eason to unite these two pairs based on mutually exclusive distribuation?,No, because both sounds occur in similar environments 1. word initial 2. before e,Yes,Hypothesis: nasal e only occurs be-fore or after nasals, and e never does,Uniting Procedure (M.E.D.),Separating Procedure (C.A.E.),If you ca

18、nt find a minimal pair, try to find a reason for uniting suspicious pairs by stating a hypothesis account-ing for the phonetic differences in the suspicious pairs,If you are unable to unite the phones, try to find the suspicious pairs Contrasting in Analogous Environments (C.A.E.), indicating the ph

19、ones are separate phonemes,Separating Procedure (C.I.E.),Try to find the suspicious pairs in the phonetic language data Contrasting in Identical Environments (C.I.E.), also called a MINIMAL PAIR, in order to provethat the phones are separate phonemes.,Kabala Dialect (Mexico),Since there is no reason

20、 to unite this pair, provide proof that the suspicious sounds should be separated because they contrast in similar environments,8,Rewrite the phonetic data phonemically, must be changed to /e/,The phonetic brackets must be changed to phonemic slant lines / /,8,Rewrite the phonetic data phonemically,

21、 must be changed to /e/,The phonetic brackets must be changed to phonemic slant lines / /,8,Rewrite the phonetic data phonemically, must be changed to /e/,The phonetic brackets must be changed to phonemic slant lines / /,Morphology,Distinguishing Features of Words,Stability,Distinguishing Features o

22、f Words,Stability,RelativeUninterruptibility,Distinguishing Features of Words,Minimum Free Form,Stability,RelativeUninterruptibility,Morphology,the study of the internalstructure of words,the smallest linguistic unit which has a meaning or grammatical function.,Morpheme,a sub-member of a morpheme,Al

23、lomorph,a morpheme that is capable ofoccurring alone(All free morphemes are words),Free Morpheme,a morpheme that cannot occur alone(No bound morpheme can be considered to be a word),Bound Morpheme,the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzedwithout a total loss of identity(a word must con

24、tain a root morpheme),Root,any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added,Stem,a bound morpheme that canonly be used when added to a root or stem morpheme,Affix,anti-in-un-mini-para-,PrefixInfixSuffix,-ize-s-ment-ify-able,foot / feet i Tagalog -um-sulat / sumulat

25、“write” / “wrote”,An affix that changes the stem from one part of speech to another, or greatly alters the meaning of the stem,Derivational Affix,An affix that adds only minute grammatical information to the stem,Inflectional Affix,thick + en = thickenchampion + ship = championship,thicken + ed = th

26、ickened championship + s = championships,Types of Morphology,(Lexical Morphology),I. Word Formation,A. Compound Words,Types of Morphology,(Lexical Morphology),I. Word Formation,A. Compound Words,B. Derived Words,Types of Morphology,(Lexical Morphology),I. Word Formation,A. Compound Words,B. Derived

27、Words,(Inflectional Morphology),II. Word Inflection,(these are the most commontypes of word formation),Some Categories Expressed by Affixes,Definiteness,Number,Size,Tense,Grammatical Relationship,Aspect,Voice,Mood,Person,Possession,Swahili Data,atanipenda “he will like me”atakupenda “he will like yo

28、u” atampenda “he will like him” atatupenda “he will like us” atawapenda “he will like them” nitakupenda “I will like you”nitampenda “I will like him”nitawapenda “I will like them”utanipenda “you will like me”utampenda “you will like him”tutampenda “we will like him”watampenda “they will like him”ata

29、kusumbua “he will annoy you”unamsumbua “you are annoying him”,Swahili Data,atanipiga“he will beat me”atakupiga“he will beat you” atampiga“he will beat him” ananipiga“he is beating me” anakupiga“he is beating you” anampiga“he is beating him” amekupiga“he has beaten you” amenipiga“he has beaten me” am

30、empiga“he has beaten him” alinipiga“he beat me” alikupiga“he beat you” alimpiga“he beat him” wametulipa“they have paid us”tulikulipa“we paid you”,atanipenda “he will like me”atakupenda “he will like you” atampenda “he will like him” atatupenda “he will like us” atawapenda “he will like them” nitakup

31、enda “I will like you”nitampenda “I will like him”nitawapenda “I will like them”utanipenda “you will like me”utampenda “you will like him”tutampenda “we will like him”watampenda “they will like him”atakusumbua “he will annoy you”unamsumbua “you are annoying him”,Swahili Data,atanipiga“he will beat m

32、e”atakupiga“he will beat you” atampiga“he will beat him” ananipiga“he is beating me” anakupiga“he is beating you” anampiga“he is beating him” amekupiga“he has beaten you” amenipiga“he has beaten me” amempiga“he has beaten him” alinipiga“he beat me” alikupiga“he beat you” alimpiga“he beat him” wametu

33、lipa“they have paid us”tulikulipa“we paid you”,atanipenda “he will like me”atakupenda “he will like you” atampenda “he will like him” atatupenda “he will like us” atawapenda “he will like them” nitakupenda “I will like you”nitampenda “I will like him”nitawapenda “I will like them”utanipenda “you wil

34、l like me”utampenda “you will like him”tutampenda “we will like him”watampenda “they will like him”atakusumbua “he will annoy you”unamsumbua “you are annoying him”,Swahili Data,atanipiga“he will beat me”atakupiga“he will beat you” atampiga“he will beat him” ananipiga“he is beating me” anakupiga“he i

35、s beating you” anampiga“he is beating him” amekupiga“he has beaten you” amenipiga“he has beaten me” amempiga“he has beaten him” alinipiga“he beat me” alikupiga“he beat you” alimpiga“he beat him” wametulipa“they have paid us”tulikulipa“we paid you”,atanipenda “he will like me”atakupenda “he will like

36、 you” atampenda “he will like him” atatupenda “he will like us” atawapenda “he will like them” nitakupenda “I will like you”nitampenda “I will like him”nitawapenda “I will like them”utanipenda “you will like me”utampenda “you will like him”tutampenda “we will like him”watampenda “they will like him”

37、atakusumbua “he will annoy you”unamsumbua “you are annoying him”,Swahili Data,atanipiga“he will beat me”atakupiga“he will beat you” atampiga“he will beat him” ananipiga“he is beating me” anakupiga“he is beating you” anampiga“he is beating him” amekupiga“he has beaten you” amenipiga“he has beaten me”

38、 amempiga“he has beaten him” alinipiga“he beat me” alikupiga“he beat you” alimpiga“he beat him” wametulipa“they have paid us”tulikulipa“we paid you”,Verb Roots,-penda “to like”-sumbua “to annoy”-piga “to beat”-lipa “to pay”,ni-(1st prsn. sing.)tu-(1st prsn. plural) ku-(2nd prsn. sing.)(2nd prsn. plu

39、ral)m-(3rd prsn. sing.)wa-(3rd prsn. plural),Object Affixes,li- (past)me- (pre per) na- (pre prog.)ta- (future),Tense Affixes,Subject Affixes,ni-(1st prsn sing.)tu-(1st prsn plural) u-(2nd prsn sing.) (2nd prsn plural)a-(3rd prsn sing.)wa-(3rd prsn plural),(1st Order),(2nd Order),(3rd Order),Syntax,

40、Syntax,the study of how sentences are structured, including word order, sentence organization, the relationship between words, word classes, etc.,Grameme,a meaningful slot in sentencestructure, and its filler(s),Sentence,a linguistic form that is structurally independent; a maximum free form,Phrase,

41、a linguistic unit potentially composed of two or more words, which functions as an element of a sentence,Elements of Syntax,Word Order,Concord (Agreement),Government,Structural Hierarchy,Head Words,the essential component in a phrase,Syntactical Hierarchy,Endocentric Compounds,Subordinating Construc

42、tions,Only one of a compounds constituents is of the same form class as the whole construction (only one head),Several unhappy motherswept in the lobby.,NP V Pre Det N,A construction that belongs to the sameform class as all or at least one of its immediate constituents (one or more head words).,Syn

43、tactical Hierarchy,Endocentric Compounds,Subordinating Constructions,Brothers and sisters should try to get along.,Coordinating Constructions,Both of a compounds constituents are of the same form class as the whole construction (two or more heads),A construction that belongs to the sameform class as

44、 all or at least one of its immediate constituents (one or more head words).,Syntactical Hierarchy,Endocentric Compounds,Exocentric Compounds,A construction that does not belong to the same form class of any of its immediate constituents,A cold wind blew infrom the north,Det Adj N V Part Pre Det N,P

45、P,A construction that belongs to the sameform class as all or at least one of its immediate constituents (one or more head words).,Apinaye Data,kukre kokoi“The monkey eats.” kukre kra“The child eats.” ape kra“The child works.” kukre kokoi rac“The big monkey eats.” ape kra mec“The good child works.”

46、ape mec kra“The child works well.” ape rac mi mec“The good man works a lot.” kukre rac kokoi punui“The bad monkey eats a lot.” ape nre mi punui“The bad man works a little.” ape punui mi“The man works badly.”,Apinaye Data,VP,V (Mod),Verbs,kukre - “to eat”ape - “to work”,Nouns,kokoi - “monkey”kra - “c

47、hild”mi - “man”,rac - “big/a lot”mec - “good/well”punui - “bad/badly”nre - “small/a little”,NP,N (Mod),S,VP NP,Modifiers(Adjective or Adverbs),Semantics,Semantics,the study of how words, phrases and sentences are used to convey meaning,Sign (Word),Referent(Thing),Concept (Sense),Semantics considers

48、meaning as an inherent part of a word,A,Sense Relations,Synonymy,fat chubbypolitician statesman gearbox transmissionwalk stroll buy purchasenave innocent,Antonymy,Gradable Antonymy,Complementary Antonymy,good badfar nearshort tallfat thin,dead alivepass failmale femaleodd even,B,A,B,Sense Relations,

49、Synonymy,fat chubbypolitician statesman gearbox transmissionwalk stroll buy purchasenave innocent,Antonymy,Gradable Antonymy,Complementary Antonymy,Converse (Relational) Antonymy,good badfar nearshort tallfat thin,dead alivepass failmale femaleodd even,buysell lendborrow beforeafterhostguest teacher

50、student employeremployeehusbandwife debtorcreditor childparent,Meronymy,Parts of a whole,Sense Relations,Hyponymy,Homonymy,Same pronunciation, different spelling, different meaning,Homophony,Same spelling, different pronunciation, different meaning,leada metal leadto guide rowa fight rowin a linewin

51、dto twist windmoving air,sight to see pare to cutsite a place pear a fruitcite to quote pair two,Homography,Same spelling, same pronunciation, different meaning,bank land beside a riverbank a financial institution,bat a flying mammalbat a wooden stick,Word Class Membership,Pragmatics,the study of me

52、aning in context,or the extended meaning of languagein the context in which it is used,Types of Contexts,Physical Context,Linguistic Context,Shared Knowledge,Social Context,The Maxim of Quality,The Maxim of Quantity,The Maxim of Relation,The Cooperative Principle,Make your conversational contributio

53、n such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose of direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.,Maxims of Communication,The Maxim of Manner,The Maxim of Tact,The Maxim of Generosity,The Maxim of Approbation,The Politeness Principle,Other things being equal

54、, minimize the expression of impolite beliefs and, other things being equal, maximize the expression of polite beliefs.,Maxims of Politeness,The Maxim of Modesty,The Maxim of Agreement,The Maxim of Sympathy,Phonetic Practice,Symbol Identification,b,Voiced Bi-labial Plosive,x,Voiceless Back-Velar Fricative,z,