英語語用學(xué)pragmatics.ppt

1、Definitions of Pragmatics,Definition 1: Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. 語用學(xué)是對在一種語言的結(jié)構(gòu)中被語法化或被編碼的那些語言和語境之間的關(guān)系的研究。,Definition 2: Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captu

2、red in a semantic theory. 語用學(xué)是對所有那些未能納入語意理論的意義側(cè)面的研究。,Definition 3: Pragmatics is the study of deixis ( at least in part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of discourse structure. 語用學(xué)是對指示（ 至少是其中的一部分）、含義、前提、言語行為以及話語結(jié)構(gòu)各個側(cè)面的研究。,Definition 4: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers o

3、f a language use sentences to effect successful communication. ( Akmajian, 1979:267 ) 語用學(xué)是對語言的使用和語言交際進行的研究。,Pragmatics vs semantics,Similarity:both are linguistic study of meaning. Difference:pragmatics takes context into consideration,while semantics does not consider it.,context,For example, “ It

4、is cold in here.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings,語言 對所使用的語言的掌握

5、 知識 對語言交際上文的了解,語言知識 對所使用的語言 的掌握 對語言交際上文的了解 百科全書式的知識（常識) 語境 背景 特定文化的社會規(guī)范 知識 特定文化的會話規(guī)則 交際的時間、地點 語言外 情景 交際的主題 知 識 知識 交際的正式程度 交際參與者的相互關(guān)系 相互 知識,From pragmatics,“It is cold in here”, besides stating the temperature of a place, can be used by the speaker to ask the listener to do something, such as to clos

6、e the window, turn on the heating or lending him a coat,Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning,A sentence is a grammatical concept,sentence meaning is abstract, intrinsic and decontextulized, utterance meaning is concrete and context-dependent and is based on sentence meaning.,The bag is heavy. Seman

7、tics analysis :BAG(BEING HEAVY) Pragmatics:1)telling the hearer the bag is heavy2)ask the hearer to help him carry the bag 3)declining someones request for help.,Speech act theory-Austins model,First theory: constatives（敘事話語）:statements that either state or describe and verifiable Performatives（行事話語

8、）:were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable.see examples on p88,Austins new model,Later,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionar

9、y act言內(nèi)行為,illocutionary act言外行為 and perlocutionary言后行為.,Locutionary act:the act of uttering words,phrases, clauses,its the act of conveying meaning Illocutionary act:the act of expressing the speakers Intention,its the act of perfoming sth. Perlocutionary act:the act resulting from saying sth, the c

10、onsequence of the utterance. Of the three,linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act,because it is identical with the speakers intention.,e.g.:You have left the door open,Locutionary act:utterance of all the words meaning. Illocutionary act:asking sb.to close the door,or making a complai

11、nt or sth else depending on the context. Perlocutionary act:the effect of the utterance,Searles classification of speech acts,Speech acts fall into five general categories: 1.representatives(闡述類):stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true.e.g.: I have never seen him before. Th

12、e illucutionary point:to commit the speaker to sths being the case,Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing are the most typical of this category.,2.directives（指令類）:to get the hearer to do sth. E.g.:open the window! inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning, threatening,ordering are instances

13、of this class.,missives（承諾類）:committing the speaker himself to some future course. E.g.:I promise to come. 4.expressives（表達類）:to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state. E.g.:Im sorry for the mess I have made.,5. Declarations（宣告類）:bringing about immediate changes by saying sth. E.g.:I

14、 fire you! I appoint you chairman of the committee.,summary,All the acts belonging to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength. Close the door,please! Will you close the door? Can you close the door? Do you mind closing the door? I would be very grateful if you close the

15、 door.,Principle of conversation,The objective of pragmatic study:to explain how language is used to effect successful communication.Grices Cooperative Principle(CP)-In making conversation,the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;or it would not be possible for them to carry on the

16、 talk.,Four maxims,1.the maxim of quantity 2.the maxim of quality 3.the maxim of relation 4.the maxim of manner,The maxim of quantity:1.make your contribution as informative as required; 2.do not make your contribution more informative than required The maxim of quality:1. Do not say what you believ

17、e to be false 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence,The maxim of relation: be relevant The maxim of manner:1. Avoid obscurity of expression 2. Avoid ambiguity 3. Be brief 4. Be orderly,Conversational implicature,Do participants always observe the CP? They nearly observe but do not

18、always . When both the speaker and the hearer know the violation,conversational implicatuture occurs. E.g.A:where does X live? B: somewhere in the suburbs of the city.,Both A and B know that B knows exactly where X lives.thus B is flouting the maxim of quantity. Implicature:I dont want to tell you w

19、here X lives.,A: Would you like to join us for the picnic? B: Im afraid I am not feeling well. Both A and B know that B has no problem with his health.,What maxim does B violate?_the maxim of quality. What implicature occurs? I dont want to join you for the picnic.,A:The hostess is an awful bore,don

20、t you think? B: the roses are lovely,arent they? what maxim does B violate? Whats the implicature?,A:lets get the kids sth. B:ok.but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. Both know its not difficult for B to pronounce the word ice-cream. B violate the maxim of ? Implying B doesnt want the kids to know they are ta

21、lking about ice-cream,summary,The significance or Grices CP is that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.,The politeness principle(PP),A complement to the CP. A: well all miss bill and jane, wont we? B: well, well all miss bill. What maxim does B viola

22、te?.what implicature does it occur? This example illustrates that people observe the PP even at the cost of violating the CP.So CP has a higher regulative role than the CP.,The maxims of PP Leechs approach to politeness,Tact maxim: Tact maxim (a) Minimize the cost to others; (b) Maximize the benefit

23、 to others; 策略準則: 盡量少讓別人吃虧;盡量多使別人得益。 使自己受惠最小,使他人受惠最大;使自己受損最大,使他人受損最小,The Generosity maxim:,(a) Minimise the benefit to self; (b) Maximise the cost to self; 慷慨準則:盡量少使自己得益;盡量多讓自己吃虧,The Approbation ( or flattery) maxim:,(a) Minimise dispraise of others; (b) Maximise praise of others贊揚準則: 盡量少貶損別人;盡量多贊揚別人。 :,:,The Modesty Maxim:,(a) Minimise praise of