地理科學(xué)100年翻譯+趙祖平.docx

11 Conclusion:into：the twenty-First Century11 Conclusion:into the twenty-First CenturyEarth science is a broad field encompassing a number of specialties. This book has touched on some of the major and minor contributions to the field in the last hundred years, and how the science has changed, but the history discussed in this book is in no way exhaustive. Developments in marine geology, oceanography, and atmospheric scienceall Earth sciences in their own rightare presented in more detail in other books in this series. Many Earth scientists, in their search for understanding the origins of life and the evolution of life on our planet, have become involved in the advancements in planetary science, astrobiology, and archaeology. The Apollo astronauts relied on Earth as an analogue for their mission to the Moon. Those who will walk on the Moon again in the future must first understand Earths biogeochemical cycles to appreciate the history and complexity of the lunar landscape, or any other planetary object humans dare to explore, such as Mars, Europa, or the asteroid 2002 AA29 discovered in 2002 that shares Earths orbit around the Sun and in 600 years will again orbit Earth as a second natural satellite with the Moon.地球科學(xué)是一個(gè)廣泛的領(lǐng)域涵蓋多個(gè)專業(yè)。這本書介紹了這個(gè)領(lǐng)域在過去一個(gè)世紀(jì)以來的一些主要的和次要的貢獻(xiàn)，以及科學(xué)如何改變，但是這本書沒有詳盡討論這段歷史。目前，在地球科學(xué)領(lǐng)域里面，另外一本書將更加詳細(xì)的介紹海洋地質(zhì)學(xué)、海洋學(xué)和大氣學(xué)的研究進(jìn)展。許多地球科學(xué)家，在生物學(xué)和考古學(xué)方面，他們搜索理解關(guān)于我們的行星在生命起源和進(jìn)化方面，已經(jīng)成為行星科學(xué)的進(jìn)步。阿波羅宇航員依靠地球模擬他們的月球任務(wù)。將來不論誰再一次行走在月球上他必先理解地球的生物地球化學(xué)循環(huán)去鑒別月球的歷史和月球風(fēng)景的復(fù)雜性，或者其他任何人敢于探索其他行星如：火星，木衛(wèi)二，或者如2002年發(fā)現(xiàn)小星行2002AA29,分享著地球軌道圍繞著太陽運(yùn)動，它將在600年后再次進(jìn)入地球軌道，屆時(shí)將成為地球的第二顆天然衛(wèi)星。Like the monarch butterflies that take many generations to complete their species migration across North America, humans must also consider their long-term goals for future generations when burning fossil fuels, consuming energy, applying fertilizers, establishing and adhering to regulations on atmospheric chemicals, and populating areas with known natural hazards. An understanding of the Earth sciences can help in these decisions. Many earthquake-prone regions have yet to develop building codes, properly enforce them, or update older structures to the newer codes. Even in California, where the hazard is common knowledge, U.S. Geological Survey seismologists Susan Hough and Lucy Jones warned that some schools built before 1970 have yet to modernize to 1990 standards. “In 1990, the provisions of the Field Act were extended to strengthen requirements for new (although not existing) private schools, although charter schools and day-care centers remain exempt,” they wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle in 2002. Earth scientists have taken on the responsibility in modern society of moving beyond educating, informing, and advising on what can be done to advocating what should be done to prepare for natural disasters before they strike. Some are more comfortable with this responsibility than others. USGS volcanologists who assist other countries typically advise civil authorities on the importance of an evacuation plan and the inherent dangers involved with the specific volcano they are helping to monitorrather than call for an evacuation themselves, for fear of being wrong and not being taken seriously the next time an evacuation is needed; for fear of being right and not having the publics immediate trust to convince them of their need to leave their homes and property. People educated and knowledgeable about the risks and dangers of a potential natural disaster in their area are more likely to make the right decisions and take appropriate and immediate action. In Papua New Guinea when Rabaul volcanos Tavurvur crater began erupting in 1994, the people in the city of Rabaul left before any evacuation order was made. In October 2006 volcanologists again reported the city had “self-evacuated” when the volcano started coughing up ash and lapilli.像帝王蝶一樣，需要幾代才能完成他們橫跨北美洲進(jìn)行物種遷移，當(dāng)我們?nèi)紵剂?，消耗能源，施用肥料，建立和?zhí)行大氣化學(xué)法規(guī)，以及發(fā)生在居住區(qū)的自然災(zāi)害時(shí)，人類也必須為子孫后代考慮他們的長遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo)。對地球科學(xué)的理解有助于對這些做出決定。許多地震多發(fā)地區(qū)尚未制定建筑規(guī)范，正確地執(zhí)行它們，或更新舊建筑規(guī)范。即使在美國加利福尼亞州，危險(xiǎn)也是常識。地質(zhì)調(diào)查局地震學(xué)家蘇珊霍夫和露西瓊斯警告說，一些學(xué)校在1970年以前建成尚未現(xiàn)代化，未達(dá)到到1990年的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在1990年，法力延伸加強(qiáng)了對民辦學(xué)校新的要求（雖然不存在）。雖然特許學(xué)校和日托中心保留其豁免權(quán)，2002年他們在“舊金山紀(jì)事報(bào)”里寫道。地球科學(xué)家超越了現(xiàn)代教育中的責(zé)任，在他們罷工前，有責(zé)任告知人們該如何準(zhǔn)備應(yīng)對自然災(zāi)害。有些人比其他人更有這個(gè)責(zé)任。美國地質(zhì)勘探局的火山學(xué)家協(xié)助其他國家通常建議民政當(dāng)局重視對疏散計(jì)劃的重要性和固有的危險(xiǎn)，他們幫助監(jiān)測而不是撤離自己，恐慌是錯誤的應(yīng)當(dāng)正確對待下一次撤離；恐懼的權(quán)利，而不是公眾的直接信任，說服他們需要離開自己的家園和財(cái)產(chǎn)受過教育和知識淵博的人對他們地區(qū)潛在的自然災(zāi)害的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和危害更有可能做出正確的決策，并采取適當(dāng)?shù)木o急行動。1994年巴布亞新幾內(nèi)亞拉包爾火山的烏魯火山開始爆發(fā)，拉包爾市的人民離開之前，沒有作出任何疏散令。2006年10月火山學(xué)家再次報(bào)道了城市“自我疏散“當(dāng)火山開始噴發(fā)火山灰和火山礫時(shí)。Unfortunately in many situations people do not understand the risks, tend to underestimate the consequences of inaction, make wrong decisions, and, if they survive, become dependent on others for help. Evacuations can be economically costly, put personal and commercial property at risk to looters, and cause a great deal of stress to the evacuating population and the areas receiving them. Authorities recognize this and do not make evacuation orders lightly. In cases where an evacuation order is not made in time, or at all, the public is left to act on their own. Without the preparation and education to recognize the signs of danger, it is impossible to expect anything other than disastrous consequences. Such was the case during the 2004 Sumatra tsunami. The Pacific Ocean is a region renowned for tsunamis; a warning system is in place, signs are posted on beaches, drills are conducted, and the public is for the most part aware of the risk. Few people in the countries with coastlines in the Indian Ocean studied the risk of tsunamis in their own backyard. When on December 26, 2004, an earthquake of magnitude 9.3 struck off the coast of Sumatra, few people in Indonesia at the time were aware that a tsunami might follow. Few people who saw the waves at the beach suddenly pull back into the sea, as if the area was experiencing an exception-ally fast onset of a low tide, knew to run to higher ground for safety, to shout out to those around them to do the same, to warn the laborers in the low-lying fields of the approaching wave. Three hundred thousand people died.不幸的是，在許多情況下，人們不理解的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，往往低估了無所作為的后果，做出錯誤的決定，并且，如果它們存活下來，變得依賴別人的幫助。疏散經(jīng)濟(jì)成本很高，這提高了個(gè)人和商業(yè)財(cái)產(chǎn)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)搶劫，引起了疏散人口的壓力而且不得不接受這一現(xiàn)實(shí)。當(dāng)局理解這一點(diǎn)并對疏散令不敢掉以輕心。如果在沒有及時(shí)疏散令的時(shí)候，留給公眾的只有自發(fā)的行為了。如果沒有接受在編教育是不可能認(rèn)識到任何自然災(zāi)害后果的。2004年蘇門答臘島的海嘯證實(shí)了這一情況。太平洋是一個(gè)著名的海嘯多發(fā)區(qū)，這里有完善的應(yīng)對海嘯的系統(tǒng)，沙灘上張貼有關(guān)海嘯的宣傳海報(bào)，并對人們進(jìn)行應(yīng)對海嘯的演練，因而公眾都能意識到這一風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。在印度洋沿岸的國家很少有人對海嘯風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的演練宣傳。在2004年12月26日，一場9.3級的地震襲擊了蘇門答臘島的海岸，當(dāng)時(shí)在印度尼西亞很少有人意識到可能隨之而來的海嘯。一些人看到海浪突然退回大海，有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的人知道這是一次低潮蓄能而且回襲很快，應(yīng)當(dāng)喊那些正在低潮區(qū)工作的人共同提醒其他人，撤離到更高的安全區(qū)域。這次海嘯造成30萬人死亡。Training and education of tsunami risk would have helped, but it is not enough. Sometimes the signs of impeding disaster are too subtle to notice. The Australian plate, which on average creeps 2.3 inches (59 mm) a year in route under Indonesia, staggered on July 17, 2006. The earth-quake struck northeast of Christmas Island, and 124 miles (200 km) southThe Sri Lanka coastline before the 2004 tsunami (NASA) 2004年海嘯前，斯里蘭卡海岸線（NASA）The Sri Lanka coastline on December 26, 2004, during tsunami flooding (NASA)2004年12月26日海嘯洪水期間，斯里蘭卡的海岸線（NASA）of Pangandaran, Java, Indonesia. The distance and physical characteristics of the seafloor dampened the land-shaking effects of the magnitude 7.7 quake, but not the amount of water it displaced. Those inside buildings and homes in Jakarta felt the earthquake, but few walking outside noticed anything more than a slight tremor. If they looked to the beach the already low tide revealed no obvious change. Those near the shore did not know a tsunami was racing toward them until after the first wave began flooding the coast. Seismometers on the other side of the globe in Hawaii recorded the earthquake, but there is only so much seismologists an ocean away can do. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii issued an alert, 17 minutes after the earthquake. The warning was not communicated to people on the coast of Indonesia in time. A wave at least 6 feet (1.8 m) in height carried away boats, buildings, and people. The tsunami left 730 people dead. A similar earthquake in 1994 in the region had produced a tsunami with a wave 43 feet (13 m) high and killed more than 200 people.海嘯風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的教育和培訓(xùn)是很有幫組的，但這還不夠。有時(shí)過于細(xì)微的通知妨礙災(zāi)害信息的傳遞。2006年7月17日測得，澳大利亞板塊，以每年2.3英寸（59毫米）的速度俯沖到印度尼西亞板塊之下。地震襲擊了圣誕島的東北部，以124英里（200公里）的速度傳播到了龐岸達(dá)蘭南部，爪哇，印度尼西亞。由于距離和物理特性，使得海底7.7級的地震，沒有造成多少海水流走，在雅加達(dá)建筑內(nèi)和家里面的人感覺到了震感，但在戶外散步的人們沒有絲毫覺察。如果人們到海邊去看低潮不會發(fā)現(xiàn)有任何變化。哪些靠進(jìn)海邊人不知道海嘯會急速跟來，直到海浪第一次涌上海灘。在地球的另一邊夏威夷地震儀器記錄到了這些，地震學(xué)家也就只能做到這些了。地震發(fā)生后17分鐘后，太平洋海嘯預(yù)報(bào)中心發(fā)出了警報(bào)，但是，警報(bào)沒能及時(shí)傳到印度尼西沿岸的人們哪里。高達(dá)6英尺（1.8米）的海浪，沖進(jìn)了船只，建筑物和人群。這次，海嘯造成730人死亡。1994年在該地區(qū)的一個(gè)類似的地震產(chǎn)生的海嘯波高43英尺（13米），造成200多人死亡。The risk of a tsunami is not a new phenomenon in the Indian Ocean; but it is still one the countries are ill prepared to handle, even two years after the 2004 disaster. On January 24, 2007, 21 countries participated in the first test of satellite phones planned for use in a future Indian Ocean tsunami warning system. When the call went out at 6 a.m. six countries reported receiving the alert within two minutes: India, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Frances Runion Island, and Thailand. Sri Lanka reported receiving the call within 10 minutes, East Timor after 18 minutes, and others hours later. Bangladesh, Kenya, and Mauritius did not respond at all. It will be years before the Indian Ocean tsunami warning system is complete; in the meantime education and low-tech warnings such as signs are critical to keep people safe. Understanding the dynamics of plate tectonics, the workings of the Earths interior and how that impacts the crust are vital in the 21st century.在印度洋海嘯的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不是一個(gè)新的現(xiàn)象，但它仍然是一個(gè)國家沒有準(zhǔn)備好如何應(yīng)對他，甚至在2004年災(zāi)難之后。 2007年1月24日，有21個(gè)國家參加計(jì)劃在將來使用衛(wèi)星電話發(fā)出海嘯警告的第一次測試。早上6點(diǎn)出門六個(gè)國家：印度，馬達(dá)加斯加，馬爾代夫，莫桑比克，法國留尼汪島和泰國將在兩分鐘內(nèi)接到警告。斯里蘭卡將在10分鐘內(nèi)警告，18分鐘后，東帝汶和他國家接收到警告。但是，孟加拉國，肯尼亞，毛里求斯沒有收到警告。如果，這是幾年前印度洋海嘯預(yù)警系統(tǒng)，那么，這是完整的，在此期間，教育和警示標(biāo)志等，對確保人生安全至關(guān)重要。在21世紀(jì)，理解動力學(xué)的板塊構(gòu)造，地球內(nèi)部的運(yùn)作形式，以及他們?nèi)绾蜗鄳?yīng)地殼至關(guān)重要。2511 Conclusion:into the twenty-First CenturyVolcanoesVolcanoesJanuary 3, 2007, marked 24 years of lava flowing from Kilaueas vent Puu Oo on Hawaii. The eruption that started in 1983 will likely continue pouring lava through underground lava tubes into the sea for many years to come. The area is dangerous to tourists because most of the fresh hot lava is under a thin black crust; roofs on inland lava tubes and lava-formed cliffs over the sea can collapse. Cracks in the crust expose areas where the lava can be seen glowing red at night. Volcanologists with the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory don heat-resistant clothing and tread carefully on older Pahoehoe lava flows that they determine are thick enough to be safe in order to conduct their studies on the basalt flows. Currently, an extension of new volcanic land 55 acres across is poised to crumble into the ocean.2007年1月3日，有24年歷史的熔巖流從Kilaueas 山流出Puu Oo 到夏威夷。1983年噴發(fā)的火山，可能會繼續(xù)通過地下熔巖管道將巖漿注入大海。在該地區(qū)旅游的旅客是危險(xiǎn)的，應(yīng)為在黑色的熔巖外殼下新鮮的熔巖正從下面通過，熔巖管道在越過海和海相撞頂部形成熔巖懸崖。地殼裂縫暴露熔巖的地方，晚上可以看到紅彤彤的熔巖。火山學(xué)家確定在夏威夷火山觀測站，在舊的Pahoehoe熔巖流上穿不耐熱衣服進(jìn)行科學(xué)研究考察是安全的，應(yīng)為這里熔巖殼足夠厚夠安全?，F(xiàn)在，新的熔巖被達(dá)到55畝，其即將延伸崩塌到海里。Mount Etna on Sicily, Italy, has erupted every year since the 21st century began. In fact, only four or five years since 1877 has Etna not had an eruption explode from one of its craters. In 2006, seismologist Domenico Patan of Italys National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Catania and colleagues reported mapping the movement of magma through the interior of the volcano using time-lapse seismic profiles: “Time-Resolved Seismic Tomography Detects Magma Intrusions at Mount Etna.” The Sicilian volcano is also attracting those interested in sound patterns. Geophysicists are also experimenting with converting Mount Etnas seismic patterns into volcanic melodies using Domenico Vicinanzas music pattern recognition (data sonification) software at the Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics. Perhaps with further study, evacuation sirens in the future will be accompanied by the musical sounds of the volcano itself. Nicolas Houli of the University of California at Berkeley uses satellite images of Mount Etna and other volcanoes to examine tree growth. He and colleagues are finding that the taller, greener vegetation tends to grow in areas where the volcano is most likely to fissure. They hypothesize that added carbon dioxide and water vapor to the soil from cracks in the volcanos structure may be a reason for the forests boost in greenness.21世紀(jì)以來，意大利的西西里島的埃特納火山，每年都噴發(fā)。事實(shí)上，自1877年以來，埃特納火山只有四五年沒有噴發(fā)。在2006年，意大利國家地球物理和火山研究所的Domenico Patan和卡塔尼亞的同時(shí)報(bào)道通過使用時(shí)間推移地震剖面研究火山內(nèi)部巖漿活動：“通過時(shí)間X斷層掃描成像技術(shù)探測埃特納火山巖漿侵入活動”。西西里島的火山也吸收這些有趣的聲音模式。在意大利國家核物理研究所，地球物理學(xué)家也在嘗試用聲音識別軟件（超聲波數(shù)據(jù)處理）把埃特納火山的地震模式轉(zhuǎn)換成Domenico Vicinanza的聲音模式。進(jìn)一步研究，或許將來的疏散警報(bào)器將伴隨火山本身的音樂聲音。加州大學(xué)伯克利分校的尼古拉斯Houli使用的埃特納火山和其他火山的衛(wèi)星影像檢查樹木的生長情況。他和他的同事們發(fā)現(xiàn)，在哪些長勢高，顏色綠色植被地區(qū)，是最有可能為火山裂隙的區(qū)域。他們推測，加入的二氧化碳和從火山結(jié)構(gòu)裂縫中滲入到土壤中的水蒸汽可能是在綠色森林的增加的一個(gè)原因。Like a litmus test, the color of Lake Voui in the crater of Aoba volcano, Vanuatu, in the South Pacific changed from blue to red in late May of 2006. The change in color followed a series of explosions since November 2005. Strangely, the volcanos other crater lake, Lake Manaro Ngoru, remained turquoise blue. The volcanologists observing the Aoba explained the red coloring as the result of iron oxidation in Lake Loui.像一塊試金石一樣，2006年5月下旬，在南太平洋，瓦努阿圖奧巴島Voui火山口湖，顏色由藍(lán)變紅。自從2005年10月顏色變化遵循一系列規(guī)律。奇怪的是其他火山口湖，如Manaro Ngoru火山口湖仍然保持翠藍(lán)色。火山學(xué)家觀察奧巴島火山口路易湖解釋顏色變化時(shí)由氧化鐵所致。Currently non-erupting volcanoes under close surveillance include Vesuvius in Italy and in the United States: the Three Sisters in Oregon and Mount Rainier in Washington. Since 2000, the following volcanoes have erupted cataclysmically with ejecta reaching 6 miles (10 km) or more above sea level:目前，沒有噴發(fā)的火山處在監(jiān)視之下，包括意大利的維蘇威火山和美國的俄勒岡州以及華盛頓州的雷尼爾山脈的三姐妹。自2000年以來，這些火山猛烈噴發(fā)，拋出物達(dá)到6公里之高（10公里）或者達(dá)到更高的海拔。 Racal, Manam, and Ulawun volcanoes in Papua New GuineaRacal, Manam,和Ulawun 三座火山，坐落于巴布亞新幾內(nèi)亞 Reventador volcano in EcuadorReventador火山坐落于厄瓜多爾 Ruang volcano in the Sangihe Island arc of IndonesiaRuang火上坐落于印度尼西亞Sangihe島弧鏈山 Shiveluch volcano on Russias Kamchatka PeninsulaShiveluch火山坐落于俄羅斯的勘察加半島上 Other volcanoes active in the 21st century include:21世紀(jì)活動的火山包括： Akan, Suwanose-jima and Miyake-jima, JapanKarymsky and Bezymianny, Russia日本的阿寒，諏訪之瀨島和三宅島俄羅斯的Karymsky和Bezymianny, Pagan (Mariana Islands), Anatahan (Mariana Islands), 馬里亞納群島的Pagan，北馬里亞納群島 Atka (Alaska), Cleveland (Alaska), Veniaminof (Alaska), Fourpeaked (Alaska), Augustine (Alaska), and St. Helens (Washington), United States美國阿拉斯加州的阿特卡、克利夫蘭、Veniaminof、Fourpeaked、奧古斯丁以及華盛頓州的St.海倫 Soufrire Hills (Montserrat), United Kingdom大不列顛聯(lián)合王國英屬殖民地蒙特塞拉特島的Soufrire山 Popocatpetl, Mxico墨西哥的Popocatpetl Fuego and Pacaya, Guatemala危地馬拉的Fuego和Pacaya Santa Ana, El SalvadorEL薩爾多瓦的Santa Ana San Cristbal, Nicaragua尼加拉瓜的San Cristbal Pos, Costa Rica哥斯達(dá)黎加的Pos Galeras, Colombia哥倫比亞的Galeras Ubinas, Per秘魯?shù)腢binas Lscar and Villarrica, Chile智利的Lscar and Villarrica Montagu Island, South Sandwich Islands澳大利亞的蒙塔古島和英國的桑威奇島 Grmsvtn, Iceland冰島的Grmsvtn Etna, Italy意大利的Etna The Lokbatan mud volcano, Azerbaijan阿塞拜疆的The Lokbatan泥火山 Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira, Democratic Republic of the Congo剛果民主共和國的Nyiragongo 和 Nyamuragira Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania坦桑尼亞的Ol Doinyo Lengai Karthala, Comoros科摩羅的Karthala Piton de la Fournaise (Runion Island) France法國的Piton de la Fournaise（Runion 島） Barren Island, India印度的Barren 島 Canlaon, Bulusan and Mayon, Philippines菲律賓的坎拉翁、布盧桑和梅奧 Merapi, Soputan, Talang, Karangetang (Api Siau), and the Lusi mud volcano, Indonesia印度尼西亞的默拉皮火山，Soputan，Talang，卡蘭吉田火山（API Siau），和Lusi泥火山 Bagana, Ulawun, Sulu Range, Ritter Island, and Langila, Papua New Guinea巴布亞新幾內(nèi)亞的Bagana, Ulawun, Sulu Range,里特島和Langila Heard, Australia澳大利亞的Heard Tinakula, Soloman Islands所羅門群島的Tinakula Lopevi and Aoba, Vanuatu 瓦努阿圖的Lopevi 和 Aoba Home Reef, Tonga湯加的霍姆礁 Raoul Island and Ruapehu, New Zealand新西蘭的Raoul 島和 Ruapehu Twentieth Century eruptions ongoing in 2007 include:21世紀(jì)2007年不間斷噴發(fā)的火山包括： Yasur, Vanuatu (since or before 1774)瓦努阿圖的Yasur（自從1774年以后） Santa Mara, Guatemala (since June 22, 1922)危地馬拉的Santa Mara（自從1922年6月22日以后） Dukono, Indonesia (since August 13, 1933)印度尼西亞的Dukono（自從1933年8月13日以后） Stromboli, Italy (since February 2, 1934)意大利的Stromboli（自從1934年2月2日以后） Sangay, Ecuador (since August 8, 1934)厄瓜多爾的Sangay（自從1934年8月8日以后） Sakura-jima, Japan (since October 13, 1955)日本櫻島（自從1955年10月13日以后） Erta Ale, Ethiopia (since in or before 1967)埃塞俄比亞的Erta Ale（自從1967年前后之后） Semeru, Indonesia (since August 31, 1967)印度尼西亞的Semeru（自從1967年8月31日以后） Arenal, Costa Rica (since July 29, 1968)哥斯達(dá)黎加的Arenal（自從1968年7月29日以后） Erebus, Antarctica (since in or before December 1972)南極洲的Erebus（自從1972年12月前后之后） Kilauea, United States (since January 3, 1984)美國的Kilauea（自從1984年1月3日之后） Colima, Mxico (since November 22, 1997)墨西哥的Colima（自從1997年12月22日之后） Shiveluch, Russia (since August 15, 1999)俄羅斯的Shiveluch（1999年8月15日之后） Tungurahua, Ecuador (since October 5, 1999)厄瓜多爾的Tungurahua（自從1999年10月5日之后）Volcanoes present a variety of dangers, not always from eruptions. Experts working to safeguard the public are the ones who put themselves at most risk. Mammoth Mountain, famous for its Southern California ski slopes, actively vents carbon dioxide from fumaroles. The gas collects around the base of trees and in snow-covered fissures, usually marked by ski patrol as an off-limits area. In April 2006, a ski patrol team was fixing a fence around a fissure when two of them fell about 15 feet (5 m) into a hole 6 feet (2 m) in diameter. A thi