大學(xué)英語新編語言學(xué)教程Chapter-4-Syntaxppt課件

Chapter4Syntax FromWordtoText 4 1WhatisSyntax Theuseoflanguage likegames hasitsownrules Toplaythegameswell youshouldknowtherules Words wordgroupsandphrases andclausescannotoccuratrandom theyhavetofollowcertainrulesofordering SYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures 句法研究的是語言中不同成分組合句子的支配規(guī)則 或者句子結(jié)構(gòu)中各要素間的相互關(guān)系 4 2Categories Categoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense e g noun verb subject predicate nounphrase verbphrase etc 范疇這一術(shù)語在一些學(xué)派中指的是狹義的詞類和詞語的功能 例如名詞 動(dòng)詞 主語 謂語 名詞短語 動(dòng)詞短語等 Morespecifically itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits 更具體一些 范疇指的是這些一般性單位的甄別性特點(diǎn) Thecategoriesofthenoun includenumber gender caseandcountability 名詞的范疇包括數(shù) 性 格和可數(shù)性 Thecategoriesoftheverb forexample person tense aspect mood voice etc 動(dòng)詞范疇則含有人稱 時(shí) 體 式 態(tài)等 GrammaticalCategories Theterm grammaticalcategory isusedbysomelinguiststorefertowordclasses InTGgrammaticalcategoriesaresyntacticunitsindicatedby categorysymbols suchasS NP VP Det A etc 有些語言學(xué)家用 語法范疇 這個(gè)術(shù)語來表示詞類 在轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法中 語法范疇是用S NP VP Det A等 范疇符號(hào) 表示的句法單位 數(shù) Number Numberisagrammaticalcategorywithaclearsemanticbasisprimarilyfornounswithtwoforms singular plural boy boys NotalltheEnglishnounshaveasingular pluraldistinction Thosenounsthathavethisdistinctionarecalled countnouns Theirregularpluralformsareclearlymarkedbypluralsuffixes Numberisalsoreflectedinpronouns asinI we andverbssinceinEnglishthereisconcord agreement ofnumberbetweennounsandverbs Theboyruns Theboysrun 數(shù) Number 性 Gender Manyinflectionallanguageshavethreemeaning relatedgenderdistinction masculine feminineandneuter 許多屈折語言里有三種和意義相關(guān)的性 陽性 陰性 中性 InEnglishgendercontrastcanbeonlyobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnounswhichshowsthebiologicalgender 格 Case ManyEnglishpronounshavedifferentformscorrespondingtothedistinctionofsubjective nominative objective accusativeanddative andgenitivecases asinI me my we us our he him his etc 英語中有許多代詞的不同的形式 分別對(duì)應(yīng)主格 賓格 屬格等等 Apartfromthepronounsystem Englishhasonlyonecasedistinctioninnouns thegenitivecaseindicatedbythesuffix iz z and s inphoneticformsand apostraphe s boy s orapostropheonly boys inwriting 英語中除了代詞之外 只有名詞有格的變化 即名詞所有格 格 Case 人稱 person Thecategoryof person isovertlymarkedinEnglishpronounsystem Italsobelongstotheverbsbecausethenumberofsubjectisindicatedintheverbformwhenthesubjectisinthethirdpersonandtheverbisinthepresenttense Ithurts theyhurt人稱在英語代詞體系中是明確標(biāo)示出來的 人稱也適用于動(dòng)詞 如果動(dòng)詞是第三人稱現(xiàn)在時(shí) 主語的數(shù)就會(huì)在動(dòng)詞的詞形上表現(xiàn)出來的 時(shí) Tense Tenseshowstherelationshipbetweentheformoftheverbandthespeaker sconceptoftime InEnglish theformalindicationisbetweenpastandnon past withthepastformallymarkedinregularverbsbysuffix ed 時(shí) 表示動(dòng)詞的詞形和說話者的時(shí)間概念之間的關(guān)系 在英語中 用詞形區(qū)分的時(shí)態(tài)分過去時(shí)和非過去時(shí) 對(duì)規(guī)則的動(dòng)詞而言 用后綴 ed表示過去時(shí) 體 Aspect Aspectdealswithhowtheeventdescribedbyaverbisviewed Englishhastwoaspectconstructions theperfectiveandtheprogressive realisedby have edparticiple and be ingparticiple respectively 體 關(guān)系到如何看待動(dòng)詞描述的事件 英語中有兩種體 一個(gè)是完成體 一個(gè)是進(jìn)行體 式 Mood Moodinvolvesachoicebetweenindicative imperativeandsubjunctiveformsoftheverbonthesemanticbasisofthefactuality 式 牽涉到在直陳式 祁使式 虛擬式動(dòng)詞詞形間做出選擇 這種選擇以語義為依據(jù) 視動(dòng)詞所描述的事件真實(shí)與否而定 TheEnglishimperativehasonlya tenseless beasformalmarker Subjunctivemoodisusedtoindicatesomeofthenonfactualandhypotheticalsituations Englishhastwoformalmarkersofsubjunctivemood thebaseformandwere 英語中的祁使式只是一個(gè)形式標(biāo)記 即 無時(shí)態(tài) 的be 虛擬式用來表示與事實(shí)不符的 假設(shè)的情況 英語中的虛擬式有兩種標(biāo)記 即動(dòng)詞原形和were 態(tài) Voice Voicemakesitpossibletoviewtheactionofasentenceineitherofthetwowayswithoutthechangesinthefactsreported 態(tài) 使人能從兩種角度看待句子描述的動(dòng)作但不改變句子描述的事實(shí) ThepassivevoiceofEnglishisrealizedby be edparticiple Thedoerintheactivesentenceisomittedinthepassiveorisindicatedbya by phrase 英語中有被動(dòng)語態(tài) 用 分詞 表示 主動(dòng)態(tài)句子中的施動(dòng)者在被動(dòng)態(tài)句子中省略 或用 by短語 ActivevoiceJimcaughttheball PassivevoiceTheballwascaught Passivevoicewith by phrase TheballwascaughtbyJim Inourtextbook categoriesreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence anounphraseoraverb 范疇指的是某一種特定的語言中執(zhí)行相同或相近功能的一組語言項(xiàng)目 如句子 名詞短語 或者動(dòng)詞 Word levelcategories Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword levelcategories 對(duì)于句法研究最核心的范疇是詞層次范疇 Herewordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories MAJORlexicalcategoriesplayaveryimportantroleinthesentenceformation Todetermineaword scategory threecriteriaareusuallyemployed namely meaning inflectionanddistribution Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning Thesecondcriterionisinflection Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections Thelastandmorereliablecriterionisitsdistribution Thatiswhattypeofelementscanco occurwithacertainword PHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword andlackingthesubject predicatestructuretypicalofclauses Traditionally itisseenaspartofstructuralhierarchy positionedbetweenclauseandword 短語 PHRASE 是含有一個(gè)以上詞語的單一結(jié)構(gòu)要素 它沒有分句所特有的主謂結(jié)構(gòu) subject predicatestructure 從傳統(tǒng)上講 短語被視為層級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)的一部分 位居分句和詞語之間 PhraseCategoriesandTheirStructures Sowecanseethatinasentencewordsaregroupedtogether Thesegroupsaregrammaticalunits Theseareunits subunitsandsub subunits eachcorrespondingtocertainsyntacticalcategoriesandorderedintermsoffivehierarchical haiE ra kikl ranks 1 sentences eachconsistsofoneormoreclauses 2 clauses eachconsistsofoneormorephrases 3 phrases eachconsistsofoneormorewords 4 words eachconsistsofoneormoremorphemes 5 morphemes SyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledPHRASE thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt 圍繞某一詞范疇構(gòu)成的句法單位稱為短語 它的范疇由該短語構(gòu)成時(shí)所圍繞的詞的范疇決定 Ifthewordaroundwhichthephraseisbuiltisanoun thenthephraseisanounphraseandsoon 短語構(gòu)成所圍繞的詞是名詞 那么該短語就是名詞短語依此類推 InEnglishsyntacticanalysis themostcommonlyrecognizedanddiscussedphrasalcategoriesarenounphrase NP verbphrase VP adjectivephrase AP andprepositionalphrase PP NVAP wordlevelmajor NPVPAPPP phraselevel Phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainthefollowingelements head specifierandcomplement Thewordwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements 由多個(gè)單詞構(gòu)成的短語通常包括以下成分 中心語 標(biāo)志語和補(bǔ)語 短語圍繞所構(gòu)成的詞叫做中心語 出現(xiàn)在中心語左邊的詞叫做標(biāo)志語 出現(xiàn)在中心語右邊的詞叫做補(bǔ)語 4 3PhraseStructureRule Aswehaveseen acertainwordcanonlyconcurwithcertainotherwords Theremustbecertaingrammaticalmechanismthatensurestheappropriatepositionsthatspecifiers heads andcomplementsoccupyinphrasestructure 如我們所見 某一特定的詞只能與另一類特定的詞組一起出現(xiàn) 這其中必定存在著某種語法機(jī)制確保標(biāo)志語 中心語和補(bǔ)語在短語結(jié)構(gòu)中處于恰當(dāng)位置的 Suchspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledphrasestructurerule PSrule 這種規(guī)定構(gòu)成一個(gè)短語的成分的排列的特殊語法機(jī)制類型被稱作是短語規(guī)則 NP Det N PP VP Qual V NP AP Deg A PP PP Deg P NP Theparenthesestheelementinthemisoptional 箭頭可以讀作 由 構(gòu)成 或者 擴(kuò)展為 括號(hào)表明其中的成分可以省略 每個(gè)規(guī)則后面的三點(diǎn)表示可以選擇加入其他的補(bǔ)語 NP Det N PP VP Qual V NP AP Deg A PP PP Deg P NP Specifier Complement Head XP X TheXPrule XP specifier X complement Thesyntacticconstructionsanalyzedareoftwotypes endocentricandexocentricconstructions dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents 根據(jù)句法結(jié)構(gòu)的分布及句法結(jié)構(gòu)中成分之間的關(guān)系 句法結(jié)構(gòu)可以分為向心結(jié)構(gòu)和離心結(jié)構(gòu) EndocentricandExocentricConstructions EndocentricConstructions ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD 向心結(jié)構(gòu)的分布和它的一個(gè)或多個(gè)成分的分布在功能上相同 該成分是一個(gè)詞或一組詞 是整個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)的核心或中心 Usuallynounphrases verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead 名詞短語 動(dòng)詞短語和形容詞通常都屬于向心結(jié)構(gòu) 因?yàn)楦鞒煞謴膶儆诙陶Z中心詞 ThesetwooldeststonebridgesHead WillbeleavingverylateHeadHead ExocentricConstructions EXOCENTRICconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Centre or Head insidethegroup 離心結(jié)構(gòu)指的是一組句法上相關(guān)的詞中沒有一個(gè)詞在功能上與整個(gè)詞組相同 也就是說 詞組內(nèi)沒有 核心 或 中心詞 Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence prepositionalphrase predicateconstruction verb object andconnectiveconstruction be complement 離心結(jié)構(gòu)通常包括 基本句 介詞短語 謂語結(jié)構(gòu)和連詞結(jié)構(gòu) Theboysmiled Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestrutureasawhole 兩個(gè)成分均不能替代整個(gè)句子結(jié)構(gòu)Hehidbehindthedoor Neitherconstituentcanfunctionastheadverbial 兩個(gè)成分均不能單獨(dú)起到狀語的功能Hekickedtheball Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb objectsequence 兩個(gè)成分均不能單獨(dú)表示動(dòng) 賓排列 Johnseemedangry Afterdivision theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists 分開后 連詞結(jié)構(gòu)不復(fù)存在 NPthelady or NPthetiger VPgotothelibrary and VPreadabook PPdownthestairs or PPoutthedoor APquiteexpensive and APverybeautiful SJohnlovesMary and SMarylovesJohntoo NPAman awoman aboy acatandadog gotintothecar Thecommonsyntacticpatternsareformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofconjunctionsuchas and or and but Suchphrasesarecalledcoordinatestructuresandthisphenomenoniscalledcoordination 在英語中 有些結(jié)構(gòu)是借助于象and或者是or這樣的連詞將同種類型的兩個(gè)或者是多個(gè)成分連接起來而構(gòu)成的 這樣的短語稱為并列結(jié)構(gòu) 這種現(xiàn)象叫做并列 ThefourimportantpropertiesofCoordination P46 Coordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingintherelationbetweenconstituents CoordinationandSubordination 根據(jù)組成成分之間的關(guān)系 向心結(jié)構(gòu)可分為并列與從屬 Subordination SUBORDINATIONreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother 從屬指的是將語言單位連接以使各單位具備不同句法地位的過程和結(jié)果 其中一個(gè)單位依賴于另一個(gè)單位 且通常是該單位的一個(gè)成分 PhraseElementsSpecifiers Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead distribution IftheheadsareNs thespecifiersaredeterminers IftheheadsareVs thespecifiersarequalifiers IftheheadsareAsandPs thenthespecifiersaredegreewords 標(biāo)志語的句法范疇因中心語范疇的不同而不同 限定語是作為名詞的標(biāo)志語 修飾語則是典型地作為動(dòng)詞的標(biāo)志語 而程度詞則作為形容詞 有時(shí)是介詞 的標(biāo)志詞 Complements Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofitshead Theyareattachedtotherightofthehead 6 P 484 1 補(bǔ)語自身就是短語 它們?yōu)橹行脑~意義中所必須包含的實(shí)體與位置提供了信息 在英語中 它們依附在中心詞的右邊 Subcategorization Theinformationaboutaword scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedSUBCATEGORIZATION 有關(guān)詞的補(bǔ)語信息是包括在中心語之中的 被稱為次范疇化 Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplements Therefore wecanreviseourearlierXPrule usinganasterisk afterthecomplementtoindicatethatoneormoreoftheseelementsispermitted 一個(gè)特定的詞匯項(xiàng)要求一種特定的補(bǔ)語 因此我們可以對(duì)我們先前的XP規(guī)則進(jìn)行修訂 用補(bǔ)語后面星號(hào)表示多個(gè)這樣的成分是被允許的 XPR1 TheXPRule revised XP Specifier X Complement Complementizers MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin Theunderlinedpartintheabovesentenceisthecomplementoftheverbbelieve Itisasentenceitselfbutnotanindependentonesinceitisintroducedbyaconjunctionandfunctionsasaphrase 上面句子的斜線部分就是動(dòng)詞believe的補(bǔ)語 雖然它本身是句子 但不是一個(gè)獨(dú)立成份 因?yàn)橛梢粋€(gè)連詞引導(dǎo) 起到了短語的作用 MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin Wordslikethatwhichintroducesthesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizers Cs 引導(dǎo)句子補(bǔ)語詞叫補(bǔ)語化成分 Thesentenceshewillwinintroducedbycomplementizerthatisacomplementclause 補(bǔ)語化成分引導(dǎo)句子叫補(bǔ)語從句 Thewholeunderlinedthatshewillwiniscalledacomplementphrase CP 整個(gè)斜體部分被稱做補(bǔ)語短語 Modifiers Modifierswhichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads 修飾語詳細(xì)地說明了中心語具有選擇性的可表達(dá)特征 ThemostcommonmodifiersofNsareadjectivephrasesandthoseofverbsareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphraseswhichdescribemannerandtime XPR2 Tomakemodifiersfitintothephrasestructure theoriginalXPrulecanbeexpandedasfollowssothatitallowsthevariousoptions TheExpandedXPRuleXP Specifier Mod X Complement Mod Manylinguistsnowadaysbelievethatsentences likeotherphrase alsohavetheirheads Theytakeanabstractcategoryinflection dubbed infl astheirheads whichindicatesthesentence stenseandagreement 許多語言學(xué)家認(rèn)為像其他短語一樣 句子也有其中心語 他們把一個(gè)抽象范疇的屈折變化 縮寫為infl 作為句子的中心語 來表現(xiàn)句子的時(shí)態(tài)和一致關(guān)系 4 5Sentences TheSRule 4 6Transformation Auxiliarymovement DoinsertionDeepstructureandsurfacestructureWh movementMoveandconstraintsontransformations Toformyes noquestion1 Anovert 顯性 inflform Auxiliarymovement2 Acovertform Doinsertion 4 6 1Auxiliarymovement4 6 2Doinsertion TheXPTheoryisextendedtosentencesbyintroducingacategoryComplimentizer COMP intothePSrulestoindicatethesubordinatorsofanydependentclauses suchathat which who whether what iffor etc ortheinvertedauxiliariesinyes noquestions XP理論還可以適用于句子 這是要在PS規(guī)則中引入標(biāo)補(bǔ)語 COMP 這個(gè)范疇 以表示that which who whether what if for等從句中的主從連詞 或者yes no問句中倒裝的助動(dòng)詞 Andayes noquestion suchas Areyouthenewteacher 像 Areyouthenewteacher 這樣的yes no問句可以表示為 S COMPSareyoutthenewteacher P54 Somesentencesmustbeanalyzedwiththehelpoftwodistincttypesofmechanisms 1 theXPrule whichdeterminestheinternalstructureofphrasalcategories and2 transformationswhichcanmodifythesetreestructuresbymovinganelementfromonepositiontoanother 一些句子必須借助兩種截然不同的機(jī)制來進(jìn)行分析 決定短語范疇的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)XP規(guī)則 把一種成分從一個(gè)位置改到另一個(gè)位置來修飾這些樹形結(jié)構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)換 4 6 3Deepstructureandsurfacestructure Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure 1 Thefirst formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead ssubcategorizationproperties iscalleddeepstructure 第一個(gè)是由XP規(guī)則按照中心語的次范疇化而構(gòu)成的 稱為深層結(jié)構(gòu) 2 Thesecond correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations iscalledsurfacestructure 第二個(gè)是與通過恰當(dāng)轉(zhuǎn)換而形成的句子的最終句法形式相對(duì)應(yīng)的 稱為表層結(jié)構(gòu) Andtogenerateasentence wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructures andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure Deepstructuresisgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules PSrules whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules T rules Thewholeprocessofthedynamicstudycanberepresentedbythefollowingdiagram PSrulesDeepstructuresT rulesSurfacestructures DeepstructureD1 Theturkeyitselfisreadytoeatsomething theturkeyisthelogicalsubjectoftoeat D2 Theturkeyasadishisreadyforpeopletoeat theturkeyisthelogicalobjectoftoeat SurfacestructureTheturkeyisreadytoeat Thedistinctionbetweendeepandsurfacestructuresenablesustoexplainthedifferencebetweenthefollowingpairofsentences whichappeartohavethesamesurfacestructuressyntactically Johniseagertoplease Johniseasytoplease Wesimplypointoutthattheyhavetwodistinctdeepstructuresandthesyntacticdifferenceisobliterated bl t re t removed除去 bytheapplicationofcertainT rules Theirdeepstructuresmayberoughlypresentedas SNPVPSVASomeonepleaseJohniseasy SNPVPNVASJohniseagerJohnpleasesomeone Thetwosentenceshavesimilarsurfacestruture Butinspitethissimilaritythegrammarofthetwoisquitedifferent John hasadifferentlogicalrelationshipto please inthetwosentences Inthefirstsentence thoughitisnotapparentfromthesurfaceorder John functionsasthedirectobjectoftheverb toplease thesentencemeans itiseasyforsomeonetopleaseJohn Whereasinthesecondsentence John functionsasthesubjectoftheverb toplease thesentencemeans Johniseagerthathepleasessomeone Itcannotbeparaphrasedas ItiseagertopleaseJohn or PleasingJohniseager Deepstruturespecifiestheserelationships a SomeonepleasesJohn iseasy b Johniseager Johnpleasessomeone PSstructurerules SomePSrulesareintroducedappliedingeneratingdeepstructures S NPAUXVPNP Det AP NAP AP ADVP AdjADVP ADVP AdvpVP V NP PP S AP ADVP PP PNPAUX Tense Modal Perf Prog Tense Present PastModal can may must will shall etc Perf have ENProg be ING SNPAUXVPNTenseVNPDetAPNAPAdjAPAdjAdjThatpresentbeaninterestingoldEnglishbook 1 ThatisaninterestingoldEnglishbook 2 Thewindowwasbroken SNPAUXVPNTenseVNPDetNSomeonepastbreakthewindowThewindowPast be ENbreak Bysomeone be Pastbreak ENwasbroken Whatsyntacticruleisinvolvedinthetransformationofthesentence Themanwascheated Explainbyusingtreediagrams 南開大學(xué)2000年考研試題 CPSNPCNPInflVPPstNPVNecheathimD structure S structure CPSNPCNPInflVPNPstNPVNHewasecheatedt 3 Hecanrunveryfast SNPAUXVPNTenseModalVADVPADVPAdvAdvHepresentcanrunveryfast 4 Isuspectheishonest SNPAUXVPNTenseVSNPAUXVPNTenseVAPAdjIpresentsuspecthePresentbedishonest 5 Sheputthebookonthedesk SNPAUXVPNTenseVNPPPDetNPNPDetNShePastputthebookonthedesk 6 Hemighthavebeenwaitingforus SNPAUXVPNTenseModalPerfProgVPPPNPNHePastmayhave ENbe INGwaitforus SNPAUXVPNTenseVJohnpastcomePastJohncomePast doJohnDoPastDid 7 DidJohncome SNPAUXVPNTenseProgVAdverboftimeJohnPresentbe INGcome whenPresent beJohnINGcomewhenWhenPresentbeJohnINGcomebePresentcomeINGiscoming 8 WhenisJohncoming SNPAUXVPNTenseVNPDetNYouPresenttakeaseat TakePresentTake 9 Takeaseat Ambiguity Mostresearchersclassifyambiguityintotwobroadgroups lexicalambiguityandstructuralambiguity Lexicalambiguityiscausedbyambiguouswordsratherthanstructuresandusuallycreatedbypolysemy p li si mi 意義的分歧orhomonymy h m n mi 同音異義 Structuralambiguityiscausedbyambiguousstructures 1 Johniseagertoplease TheambiguityliesinthelogicalrelationshipbetweenJohnandtoplease Johnmightbethelogicalsubjectoftoplease meaningthatJohniseagertopleaseothers orthelogicalobjectoftoplease meaningthatJohniseagertobepleased 2 Theydecidedonthetrain Thewordonmaygotogetherwithdecided withthewholesentencemeaningtheychosetotakethetrain Andoncanalsobecombinedwiththetrain actingastheadverbialofplaceandthusgivingthesentencethemeaningthattheymadeadecisiononthetrain 3 Theyarecookingapples Thev ingformcookingmaybepartofthepredicatearecooking orpartofthepredictivecookingapples Thesentencemeans inthefirstcase thatthosepeoplearepreparingfoodbyheatingapplesandinthesecond thatthoseareapplesforcooking 4 Maryhitamanwithanumbrella Theambiguityherearisesfromtheprepositionalphasewithanumbrella whichmayactastheattributiveoftheprecedingnounphraseaman orastheadverbialofplaceoftheverbhit Therefore thesentencemeans inthefirstcase thatMaryhitamanwhoheldanumbrellaand inthesecond thatMaryusedanumbrellatohitaman 5 IlikeEveaswellasGloria Meaning1 IlikeEveaswellasIdoGloria Meaning2 IlikeEveaswellasGloriadoesher Meaning3 IlikebothEveandGloria 6 ShegaveabooktoherbrotherinNanjing Meaning1 ShegaveabooktoherbrotherwhowasinNanjing Meaning2 ItwasinNanjingthatshegaveabooktoherbrother 7 Thereisabigstonehouseatthefootofthemountain Theadjectivebigmaymodifyeitherstoneorhouse Soabighousecanbeunderstoodeitherahousemadeofbigstonesorasastonehousewhichisbig 8 Thepolicewasorderedtostopdrinkingaftermidnight Meaning1 Itwasaftermidnightthatthepolicewasorderedtostopthemselvesfromdrinking Meaning2 Itwasaftermidnightthatthepolicewasorderedtostopothersfromdrinking Meaning3 Accordingtotheorder thepolicehadtostopthemselvesfromdrinking Meaning4 Accordingtotheorder thepolicehadtostopothersfromdrinking ICAnalysis Thereisahierarchicalrelationbetweenallthepossiblewordgroupsinasentence Andasentenceismadeupoftwo partconstruct