道路交通安全——英漢對(duì)照

1、道路交通安全主要內(nèi)容：汽車碰撞。道路安全旨在減少由機(jī)動(dòng)車輛碰撞造成的傷害（死亡、受傷、財(cái)產(chǎn)損失）。道路交通事故造成的傷害比其他所有運(yùn)輸方式（航運(yùn)、海運(yùn)、空間等）都要嚴(yán)重。道路交通安全研究的重點(diǎn)在于如何減少道路交通事故以及降低道路交通事故所產(chǎn)生的后果的嚴(yán)重性。一起道路交通碰撞是一個(gè)涉及了造成公路及車輛傷害的事件。其原因在于收集數(shù)據(jù)時(shí)，只能包括受損的車輛，而一個(gè)人在道路中摔倒而導(dǎo)致的嚴(yán)重后果則不被認(rèn)為是交通事故致命。受害人必須被車輛撞擊而導(dǎo)致身體傷害才能被視為交通事故。背景道路交通事故是世界上最大的公眾健康和受傷的問題。這個(gè)問題一直是更敏銳，因?yàn)槭芎φ咦曹囀鹿手笆菬o(wú)比健康的。根據(jù)世界衛(wèi)生組織統(tǒng)計(jì)

2、，全世界每年有超過一萬(wàn)人死于交通事故。用于評(píng)估道路安全措施的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)主要有事故率、事故死亡人數(shù)，通常還用億車公里死亡人數(shù)。在美國(guó)，每英里的百萬(wàn)車輛事故數(shù)通常用于評(píng)價(jià)道路安全。速度是現(xiàn)代公路的設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵目標(biāo)，但是受速度的嚴(yán)重影響，居住者和行人都到了受傷。當(dāng)?shù)鼐用馢oksch(1993)發(fā)現(xiàn)司機(jī)在事故中死亡的概率隨著第四的速度(通常是指影響數(shù)學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)，意思變化的速度)的增加而遞增。突然的加速(或減速)造成的嚴(yán)重傷害，這是難以測(cè)量。然而，再次碰撞技術(shù)可以用來(lái)評(píng)估之前的車輛速度碰撞。因此，這一速度變化作為加速度替代。干預(yù)有多種形式。對(duì)公路事故成因可能是司機(jī)(如駕駛失誤，疾病和疲勞)，車輛(制動(dòng)、方向盤、

3、或節(jié)流失敗)或道路本身(缺乏眼前的距離，可憐的路邊清晰的區(qū)域，等等)。干預(yù)力圖減少或賠償這些因素，或者減輕發(fā)生的事故的后果。一個(gè)全面的干預(yù)大綱可以道路交通安全管理系統(tǒng)中發(fā)現(xiàn)。道路設(shè)計(jì)在附近的道路上有許多脆弱的道路使用者，如行人和騎自行車的人，可以發(fā)現(xiàn)，交通紓緩措施可以作為實(shí)現(xiàn)道路安全一種工具。主要依靠人類本能和相互作用，如眼神接觸的共享空間的方案，由于它們的有效性，除去傳統(tǒng)的交通信號(hào)和標(biāo)志，甚至消除馬路和人行道的區(qū)別，也變得越來(lái)越受歡迎。這兩種方法都可以被證明是有效的。附近的道路，外面設(shè)計(jì)特征旨在提高機(jī)動(dòng)車的安全和移動(dòng)性。這些特征來(lái)增加成本，費(fèi)用包括貨幣數(shù)量、用于減少或勸阻使用非機(jī)動(dòng)車出行的旅

4、客以及增加美感。在另一端的領(lǐng)域，從附近的道路是高速公路，這可能是高速公路、州際公路或者其他國(guó)家的名字。高速公路的最佳設(shè)計(jì)特點(diǎn)是限制駛?cè)氲臋C(jī)會(huì)，減小沖突，提供最安全的旅行和更好的燃油經(jīng)濟(jì)性，以及擁有更高的平均速度。道路設(shè)計(jì)特點(diǎn)一種方法是在一些高速公路的危險(xiǎn)路段設(shè)置專用安全引導(dǎo)標(biāo)志。高速公路上需要有更好的曲線傾斜以減少牽引力增加車輛的穩(wěn)定性。大多數(shù)道路被彎曲，于是他們有圓形的表面，以減少站在冰和水，主要是為了防止冰霜傷害但也增加了在惡劣天氣的牽引力。一些路正在用浮出水面的多孔瀝青來(lái)加強(qiáng)排水;這里特別需要進(jìn)行彎曲。這些都只是高速公路工程的幾個(gè)要素?，F(xiàn)代安全護(hù)欄旨在吸收沖擊能量和降低道路使用者、旁觀者

5、的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如，大多數(shù)圍欄正錨定到地上，所以他們不能刺穿乘客車廂，最輕桿是為了打破在該基地，而不是猛烈地停止一輛撞擊他們的車輛。有些道路裝置，如路標(biāo)和消防栓是為了緩沖撞擊。公路當(dāng)局已經(jīng)砍掉了鄰近地區(qū)的道路上的樹，而提出的“危險(xiǎn)的樹”吸引了不少的懷質(zhì)疑，諸如樹永這種不可原諒的物體而引起嚴(yán)重的傷害，傷害到任何誤入的道路使用者。路邊視線的清晰度的重要性的例子，可以在英國(guó)一個(gè)小島TT摩托車賽道上找到。它比銀石賽道更危險(xiǎn)，因?yàn)槿狈?，?dāng)騎手慢慢地從銀石賽道摔下來(lái)時(shí)的幻燈片，因此失去能量最小傷害。當(dāng)他落在Manx他影響的樹木和墻壁。同樣，一個(gè)清晰的區(qū)域和高速公路或其他高速公路可以防止越野旅行變成固定對(duì)象的撞車

6、事故。一些在美國(guó)有影響高山上的高速公路護(hù)欄，旨在逐漸吸收衰減器的動(dòng)能汽車和緩慢的更輕擊結(jié)束前的護(hù)欄，將破壞性的。很多機(jī)制是用來(lái)釋動(dòng)能。一個(gè)系統(tǒng)障礙、裝滿沙子的桶，采用動(dòng)量傳遞來(lái)自車輛的沙子。許多其他系統(tǒng)撕開或變形鋼構(gòu)件中吸收能量并逐漸停止。路交叉口危害，在某些地區(qū)，現(xiàn)在通常標(biāo)明了好幾次，大約五、六十秒，所以司機(jī)不太可能嘗試暴力的策略。大多數(shù)的路標(biāo)和路面材料，標(biāo)志采用向后反射的小玻璃球或棱鏡來(lái)更有效地從車前燈的光反射回司機(jī)的眼睛。道路標(biāo)記在一些國(guó)家和美國(guó)都用明亮反光的Cats eyes或者Botts dots，不要萎謝了喜歡畫畫。Botts點(diǎn)不使用它，因?yàn)槎旖Y(jié)冰霜，能打破膠水，為機(jī)場(chǎng)提供它們的

7、路，雖然他們可以被埋在短，淺淺的壕溝雕刻在路旁，如在山區(qū)的加利福尼亞。在一些國(guó)家主要道路”音調(diào)樂隊(duì)”的印象的邊緣或者切成塊，這樣的法律巷道架上司機(jī)大聲嗡嗡驚醒了他們的轉(zhuǎn)向，釋放了邊緣的路。調(diào)帶也被稱為“帶”，由于他們創(chuàng)造的聲音。另一種方法是使用“提高”標(biāo)記，包括肋的連續(xù)劃線，用在定期的線。他們第一次特別授權(quán)的使用范圍邊劃線隔開邊緣的隔離帶從主車道。這個(gè)目標(biāo)是為了達(dá)到改善的標(biāo)志視覺的行車道邊在潮濕的條件在夜晚。它還提供了一聲/振動(dòng)警報(bào)，汽車司機(jī)，他們就偏離了車道，跑到這個(gè)標(biāo)記。美國(guó)已經(jīng)開發(fā)出一種原型自動(dòng)化，以減少疲勞駕駛巷道和提高承載能力的道路。路邊的單位參加未來(lái)無(wú)線通信網(wǎng)絡(luò)的車輛安全性進(jìn)行了研

8、究。有爭(zhēng)議的電機(jī)的方式已經(jīng)大堂主宰道路安全議程。有些道路安全的人士使用術(shù)語(yǔ)“道路安全”(引用)來(lái)描述等措施的“危險(xiǎn)”的樹木和強(qiáng)制隔離的脆弱的機(jī)動(dòng)車輛的優(yōu)勢(shì)。東正教”道路安全”觀點(diǎn)未能解決亞當(dāng)斯描述為世界頂級(jí)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的認(rèn)知和態(tài)度溫控器，道路使用者社群。高速公路高速公路(叫做北美高速公路)有最高的設(shè)計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為快速、安全、燃油效率。提高高速公路的安全性可以通過以下措施:，禁止更易受傷害的道路使用者使用高速公路；禁止緩慢的車輛駛?cè)?，從而降低速度變化及潛在的同向行駛；通過中央分隔帶來(lái)分離逆向行駛的交通流來(lái)減少潛在的逆向碰撞；分離交通取代交叉口，從而減少潛在的立交、最脆弱的一面的影響車輛(也負(fù)責(zé)一些最嚴(yán)重的創(chuàng)

9、傷性腦損傷)。去除路邊障礙。雖然這些道路可能比大多數(shù)的道路經(jīng)歷更多的嚴(yán)重性，由于更高的速度在碰撞，某一碰撞降低去除互動(dòng)，傳球，慢(路口交通)，并與反對(duì)碰撞嚴(yán)重降低或消除大規(guī)模、固定物體周圍能量衰減設(shè)備(如護(hù)欄、寬領(lǐng)域、沙桶)的草地上。這些機(jī)制在下面的表格中提供比其他的道路較低的每車公里死亡率。國(guó)家億車公里死亡人數(shù) (高速公路)億車公里死亡人數(shù) (非高速公路)高速公路 年平均日交通量高速公路出行率km/h (mph) 高速公路極限車速奧地利5.913.430，07723%130 (80)捷克9.934.325，71411%130 (80)丹麥3.011.929，45425%130 (80)芬蘭1

10、.48.322，78010%120 (75)法國(guó)4.012.831，97921%130 (80)德國(guó)3.812.448，71031%none(130 (80) advisory)愛爾蘭7.411.026，7304%120 (75)日本4.011.926，1529%100 (60)新西蘭2.111.766，73441%120 (75)斯洛文尼亞8.118.715，64319%130 (80)瑞典2.59.924，18321%110 (70)瑞士2.811.843，64133%120 (75)英國(guó)2.09.385，53623%110 (70)美國(guó)5.210.739，63424%120 (75)定義

11、:AADT年平均每日交通量。高速公路比普通公路建設(shè)是非常昂貴的，而且占用空間大，所以只作為主要?jiǎng)用}的路線。在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家，高速公路的一個(gè)重要部分承擔(dān)機(jī)動(dòng)旅游，例如，英國(guó)的3533公里的高速公路不到2003年英國(guó)的道路的1.5%，但是承擔(dān)了23%的交通量。高速公路交通安全性是這個(gè)比例的一項(xiàng)重要因素。例如，盡管英國(guó)比芬蘭在高速公路和非高速公路都有較高的死亡率，但是兩國(guó)在2003年的總體死亡率卻持平。這個(gè)結(jié)果是由于英國(guó)的更高比例的高速公路旅行。改進(jìn)的安全性和經(jīng)濟(jì)性建設(shè)更多高速公路常見的原因。然而，計(jì)劃通行能力通常是在更短的時(shí)間超過最初計(jì)劃，因?yàn)榈凸懒说缆烦鲂械男枨罅?。在發(fā)展中國(guó)家，有明顯的公開討論的請(qǐng)求

12、繼續(xù)投資于高速公路。世界各地的高速公路都受到廣泛的速度范圍。最近的實(shí)驗(yàn)和可變限速自動(dòng)測(cè)量基礎(chǔ)上的交通流量將改善交通流量，既減少碰撞率的基本原理，結(jié)合湍流流動(dòng)進(jìn)行分析。自2005年1月，主要是基于安全理由，英國(guó)的高速公路管理局的政策，所有新的高速公路的計(jì)劃是使用高密度的中央分隔帶。所有現(xiàn)存的高速公路將介紹水泥路障中央分隔帶的一部分，通過不斷升級(jí)的替代者，當(dāng)這些系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)達(dá)到了他們最后的使用壽命。該政策的變動(dòng)僅適用于貿(mào)易壁壘的中央儲(chǔ)備的高速公路和不邊緣邊的障礙。其他的道路將會(huì)繼續(xù)使用鋼的護(hù)欄。路面設(shè)計(jì)簡(jiǎn)易的路面施工可能導(dǎo)致安全問題。如果過多的瀝青混合料瀝青混凝土的粘結(jié)劑用于、粘結(jié)劑的流血”或“表面齊

13、平，留下一個(gè)表面非常光滑，沒有牽引力當(dāng)濕。某些種類的石頭變成非常光滑或拋光料不變的條件下對(duì)汽車的輪胎，穿著作用又導(dǎo)致貧窮雨胎牽引。這些問題可以增加制動(dòng)距離的增加雨胎事故或?qū)е率タ刂啤Ｈ绻访嫫露然蜉^差的不足，靜水表面上也能導(dǎo)致雨胎墜毀由于滑行。車輛的安全特性通過減少安全可以改進(jìn)的機(jī)會(huì)做出了錯(cuò)誤的車手，或藉由設(shè)計(jì)工具來(lái)減輕癥狀的發(fā)生的事故。大多數(shù)工業(yè)化國(guó)家有全面的要求和規(guī)格的汽車設(shè)備、系統(tǒng)、相關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)、施工。這些可能包括:乘客的限制，如安全帶通常結(jié)合法律要求他們使用-和安全氣囊；避免撞車的設(shè)備，如燈光、反光；駕駛輔助系統(tǒng)，如電子穩(wěn)定控制；撞車幸存的設(shè)計(jì)，室內(nèi)材料防火標(biāo)準(zhǔn)體系完整、燃料和使用安全玻

14、璃；酒精檢測(cè)器:這些連鎖裝置防止點(diǎn)火的關(guān)鍵工作如果司機(jī)呼吸進(jìn)人還能探測(cè)到大量的酒精。他們已經(jīng)在一些商業(yè)運(yùn)輸公司、或建議用持續(xù)強(qiáng)調(diào)罪犯在自愿的基礎(chǔ)上。針對(duì)駕駛員對(duì)策安全可以改善的方法，鼓勵(lì)安全的行為，或減少駕駛失誤的機(jī)會(huì)。這些包括:強(qiáng)制性培訓(xùn)和授權(quán)；禁止酒后駕車；禁止在駕駛中使用手機(jī)；強(qiáng)制保險(xiǎn)賠償；限制商用客車的連續(xù)駕駛時(shí)間；加強(qiáng)交通監(jiān)控措施。針對(duì)新手駕駛員的策略年輕而又沒有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的駕駛員由于缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)、過度自信、想炫耀、或是身體發(fā)育遲緩等原因而更更容易發(fā)生交通事故。已經(jīng)注意到這些情況更多的發(fā)生在車輛超載或使用安全帶較少的夜晚。這導(dǎo)致了一些保險(xiǎn)公司和立法建議：“宵禁”強(qiáng)加給年輕的司機(jī)來(lái)防止他們?cè)谝归g

15、開車；一位經(jīng)驗(yàn)豐富的司機(jī)主管缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)的司機(jī)；禁止超員；禁止酒后駕車；提高駕校的要求標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和提高駕駛員的駕駛測(cè)試；車輛的限制(例如限制訪問到的高性能的車輛)；在車后放一個(gè)新手標(biāo)志以提醒其他駕駛員；有差別的鼓勵(lì)良好的駕駛行為。某些國(guó)家或州已經(jīng)實(shí)施了一些這樣的想法。這種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加了年輕的保險(xiǎn)公司，和溢價(jià)有時(shí)反映;然而，非常高的溢價(jià)，年輕司機(jī)不似乎都有顯著影響碰撞的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字。這些(土著)語(yǔ)言中有些已經(jīng)反對(duì)干預(yù)(見不安全的汽車制造商在任何速度)或由司機(jī)，或由學(xué)者認(rèn)為，由于風(fēng)險(xiǎn)補(bǔ)償效果的一些措施，可以降低道路的整體安全。雇主們目前逃過一劫，絕大部分責(zé)任鏈為其雇員的駕駛?？ㄜ囁緳C(jī)，尤其是個(gè)體的，可以得到不切實(shí)際

16、的期限。有運(yùn)動(dòng)帶來(lái)駕車上班(兩商用車輛，更有爭(zhēng)議的是，私家車推動(dòng)公司業(yè)務(wù))的保護(hù)傘下工作場(chǎng)所安全立法。這些是強(qiáng)烈的抵抗，因?yàn)樗麄儗⒎乓粋€(gè)更大的負(fù)擔(dān)雇主和雇員一樣:處罰工業(yè)安全違規(guī)通常比為過失機(jī)動(dòng)車輛使用。其他道路使用者行人和騎自行車的人是最脆弱的道路使用者，并在一些國(guó)家占一半的交通死亡事故。旨在改善普通道路使用者的安全的干預(yù)措施：隔離設(shè)施，如循環(huán)的小巷，過節(jié)天橋等；物理隔離設(shè)施；禁止行人步行進(jìn)入高速公路；推廣騎自行車帶頭盔活動(dòng)；推廣提高交通安全意識(shí)的活動(dòng)，例如由希爾曼寫道的“一不小心”活動(dòng)，等；行人通道，這被看作是在道路劃線制約點(diǎn)的數(shù)目，常常要走彎路。交通穩(wěn)靜化和速度駝峰；降低城市速度限制；通

17、過自動(dòng)化的手段嚴(yán)格執(zhí)行限速，如測(cè)速儀。道路安全的廣告世界各地的道路交通部門發(fā)動(dòng)廣告來(lái)說服驅(qū)動(dòng)車輛安全運(yùn)行。例子包括:超速行駛。沒有人贊同你的大膽。(澳大利亞新南威爾士，2007年)道路安全不是偶然的世界衛(wèi)生組織。批評(píng)行人的倡導(dǎo)者、環(huán)保團(tuán)體和相關(guān)機(jī)構(gòu)，如RoadPeace一直強(qiáng)烈批評(píng)他們以增加機(jī)動(dòng)車輛通過的限制視為解決這一威脅到脆弱的道路使用者問題的辦法，原因是他們認(rèn)為都譴責(zé)受害者和未能解決這一問題的源頭。羅伯特戴維斯在書中死在街上詳細(xì)討論了汽車和神話的道路安全的核心問題。這是由于一些道路安全的問題在很大程度上是錯(cuò)誤的，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)道路安全措施方面是為了提高司機(jī)的安全性，但很多道路交通傷亡不是司機(jī)

18、(在英國(guó)只有40%的傷亡人數(shù)是司機(jī))，這些可以增加驅(qū)動(dòng)安全性措施，通過對(duì)這些其他補(bǔ)償增加了其他的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Road traffic safetyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaMain article: Motor vehicle collisionsRoad safety aims to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from motor vehicle collisions. Harm from road traffic crashes is grea

19、ter than that from all other transportation modes (air, sea, space, etc.) combined.Road traffic safety deals exclusively with road traffic crashes how to reduce their number and their consequences. A road traffic crash is an event involving a road vehicle that results in harm. For reasons of clear d

20、ata collection, only harm involving a road vehicle is included. A person tripping with fatal consequences on a public road is not included as a road-traffic fatality. To be counted a pedestrian fatality, the victim must be struck by a road vehicle.BackgroundRoad traffic crashes are one of the worlds

21、 largest public health and injury prevention problems. The problem is all the more acute because the victims are overwhelmingly healthy prior to their crashes. According to the World Health Organization more than a million people are killed on the worlds roads each year.1.The standard measures used

22、in assessing road safety interventions are fatalities and Killed or Seriously Injured (KSI) rates, usually per billion (109) passenger kilometres. In the United States, crashes per million vehicle miles is typically used for road safety.Speed is a key goal of modern road design, but impact speed aff

23、ects the severity of injury to both occupants and pedestrians. For occupants, Joksch (1993) found the probability of death for drivers in multi-vehicle accidents increased as the fourth power of impact speed (often referred to by the mathematical term v (delta V), meaning change in velocity). Injuri

24、es are caused by sudden, severe acceleration (or deceleration), this is difficult to measure. However, crash reconstruction techniques can be used to estimate vehicle speeds before a crash. Therefore, the change in speed is used as a surrogate for acceleration.Interventions take many forms. Contribu

25、ting factors to highway crashes may be related to the driver (such as driver error, illness or fatigue), the vehicle (brake, steering, or throttle failures) or the road itself (lack of sight distance, poor roadside clear zones, etc). Interventions may seek to reduce or compensate for these factors,

26、or reduce the severity of crashes that do occur. A comprehensive outline of interventions areas can be seen in Management systems for road safety.Road designOn neighborhood roads where many vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians and bicyclists can be found, traffic calming can be a tool for road

27、 safety. Shared space schemes, which rely on human instincts and interactions, such as eye contact, for their effectiveness, and are characterised by the removal of traditional traffic signals and signs, and even by the removal of the distinction between carriageway (roadway) and footway (sidewalk),

28、 are also becoming increasingly popular. Both approaches can be shown to be effective.Outside neighborhood roads, design features are added to increase motorized safety and mobility. These features come at increasing costs; costs which include monetary amounts, decreased or discouraged usage by non-

29、motorized travelers, as well as aesthetics. At the other end of the spectrum from neighborhood roads are motorways, which may be called freeways, limited access highways, Autobahnen, Interstates or other national names. Motorways have the best engineered road features, limited access and minimise op

30、portunities for conflict so are typically the safest roads per mile travelled and offer better fuel economy despite higher average speeds.Road design featuresOne method is to post special safety signage on the most dangerous highways.Better motorways are banked on curves in order to reduce the need

31、for tire-traction and increase stability for vehicles with high centers of gravity. Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of

32、road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering.Modern safety barriers are designed to absorb impact energy and minimize the risk to the occupants of cars, and bystanders. For example, most side r

33、ails are now anchored to the ground, so that they cannot skewer a passenger compartment, and most light poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Highway authori

34、ties have also removed trees in the vicinity of roads; while the idea of dangerous trees has attracted a certain amount of skepticism, unforgiving objects such as trees can cause severe damage and injury to any errant road users.An example of the importance of roadside clear zones can be found on th

35、e Isle of Man TT motorcycle race course. It is much more dangerous than Silverstone because of the lack of runoff. When a rider falls off at Silverstone he slides along slowly losing energy, so minimal injuries. When he falls of in the Manx he impacts with trees and walls. Similarly, a clear zone al

36、ongside a freeway or other high speed road can prevent off-road excursions from becoming fixed-object crashes.The ends of some guard rails on high-speed highways in the United States are protected with impact attenuators, designed to gradually absorb the kinetic energy of a vehicle and slow it more

37、gently before it can strike the end of the guard rail head on, which would be devastating at high speed. Several mechanisms are used to dissipate the kinetic energy. Fitch Barriers, a system of sand-filled barrels, uses momentum transfer from the vehicle to the sand. Many other systems tear or defor

38、m steel members to absorb energy and gradually stop the vehicle.Road hazards and intersections in some areas are now usually marked several times, roughly five, twenty and sixty seconds in advance so that drivers are less likely to attempt violent manoeuvres.Most road signs and pavement marking mate

39、rials are retro-reflective, incorporating small glass spheres or prisms to more efficiently reflect light from vehicle headlights back to the drivers eyes.Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cats eyes or Botts dots, bright reflectors that do not fade like paint. Botts dots are

40、not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to the road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California.In some countries major roads have tone bands impres

41、sed or cut into the edges of the legal roadway, so that drowsing drivers are awakened by a loud hum as they release the steering and drift off the edge of the road. Tone bands are also referred to as rumble strips, owing to the sound they create. An alternative method is the use of Raised Rib markin

42、gs, which consists of a continuous line marking with ribs across the line at regular intervals. They were first specially authorised for use on motorways as an edge line marking to separate the edge of the hard shoulder from the main carriageway. The objective of the marking is to achieve improved v

43、isual delineation of the carriageway edge in wet conditions at night. It also provides an audible/vibratory warning to vehicle drivers, should they stray from the carriageway, and run onto the marking.The U.S. has developed a prototype automated roadway, to reduce driver fatigue and increase the car

44、rying capacity of the roadway. Roadside units participating in future Wireless vehicle safety communications networks have been studied.There is some controversy over the way that the motor lobby has been seen to dominate the road safety agenda. Some road safety activists use the term road safety (i

45、n quotes) to describe measures such as removal of dangerous trees and forced segregation of the vulnerable to the advantage of motorized traffic. Orthodox road safety opinion fails to address what Adams describes as the top half of the risk thermostat, the perceptions and attitudes of the road user

46、community.MotorwayMotorways (called freeways in North America) have the highest design standards for speed, safety and fuel efficiency. Motorways improve safety by: prohibiting more vulnerable road users prohibiting slow-moving vehicles, thus reducing speed variation and potential v for same-directi

47、on travel segregating opposing traffic flows with median dividers or crash barriers, thus reducing potential v for opposite-direction collisions separating crossing traffic by replacing intersections with interchanges, thus reducing potential v into the side, most vulnerable vehicle section (side im

48、pacts are also responsible for some of the most serious traumatic brain injuries) removing roadside obstacles.Although these roads may experience greater severity than most roads to due higher speeds in the event of a crash, the probability of a crash is reduced by removing interactions (crossing, p

49、assing, slower and opposing traffic), and crash severity is reduced by removing massive, fixed objects or surrounding them with energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels). These mechanisms deliver lower fatalities per vehicle-kilometer of travel than other roadways

50、, as documented in the following table.CountryKilled per 1 Billion Vehkm (Motorways in 2003)Killed per 1 Billion Vehkm (Non-Motorways in 2003)Motorway AADTRoad Travel by Motorwaykm/h (mph) Motorway 2003 Speed LimitAustria5.913.430,07723%130 (80)Czech Republic9.934.325,71411%130 (80)Denmark3.011.929,

51、45425%130 (80)Finland1.48.322,78010%120 (75)France4.012.831,97921%130 (80)Germany3.812.448,71031%none(130 (80) advisory)Ireland7.411.026,7304%120 (75)Japan4.011.926,1529%100 (60)Netherlands2.111.766,73441%120 (75)Slovenia8.118.715,64319%130 (80)Sweden2.59.924,18321%110 (70)Switzerland2.811.843,64133

52、%120 (75)United Kingdom2.09.385,53623%110 (70)United States5.210.739,63424%120 (75)definition: AADT - average annual daily traffic.Motorways are far more expensive and space-consumptive to build than ordinary roads, so are only used as principal arterial routes. In developed nations, motorways bear

53、a significant portion of motorized travel; for example, the United Kingdoms 3533km of motorways represented less than 1.5% of the United Kingdoms roadways in 2003, but carry 23% of road traffic.The proportion of traffic borne by motorways is a significant safety factor. For example, even though the

54、United Kingdom had a higher fatality rates on both motorways and non-motorways than Finland, both nations shared the same overall fatality rate in 2003. This result was due to the United Kingdoms higher proportion of motorway travel.The improved safety and fuel economy of motorways are common justif

55、ications for building more motorways. However, the planned capacity of motorways is often exceeded in a shorter timeframe than initially planned, due to the under estimation of the extent of the suppressed demand for road travel. In developing nations, there is significant public debate on the desir

56、ability of continued investment in motorways.Motorways around the world are subject to a broad range of speed limits. Recent experiments with variable speed limits based on automatic measurements of traffic density have delivered both improvements in traffic flow and reduced collision rates, based o

57、n principles of turbulent flow analysis.citation neededWith effect from January 2005 and based primarily on safety grounds, the UKs Highways Agencys policy is that all new motorway schemes are to use high containment concrete step barriers in the central reserve. All existing motorways will introduce concrete barriers into the central reserve as part of ongoing upgrades and through replacement as and when these systems have reached the end of their usefu