國際經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)克魯格曼-教材答案

1、Problems and Answers to Chapter 2 Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canadas is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australias. Why should this be the case? 加拿大和澳大利亞都是英語國家，兩國的

2、人口規(guī)模也相當(dāng)（加拿大多 60%） ，但是相 對各自的 GDP 而言，加拿大的貿(mào)易額是澳大利亞的兩倍，為什么如此？ A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume of trade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Considering the distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher

3、than that of Canada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to the USA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy, making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky. GDP 不是解釋兩國貿(mào)易量的唯一重要因素，距離也是至關(guān)重要的因素之一。 考慮到距離，澳大利亞的進(jìn)出口運(yùn)輸成本相對更高，因此減少了貿(mào)易吸

4、引力。 因?yàn)榧幽么笈c美國相鄰，而澳大利亞不與任何一個(gè)大經(jīng)濟(jì)體相鄰，這使得加拿 大更加開放，而澳大利亞更加自給自足。 Q2:Mexico and Brazil have very different trading patterns. Mexico trades mainly with the United States, Brazil trades about equally with the United States and with the European Union; Mexico does much more trade relative to its GDP. Explain t

5、hese differences using the gravity model. 墨西哥和巴西各自的貿(mào)易模式不同。墨西哥主要與美國貿(mào)易，巴西與美國和 歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當(dāng)。墨西哥的貿(mào)易量相對其 GDP 而言很大。用引力模型 解釋這種現(xiàn)象。 A2:Mexico is close to the United States, but is very far from the European Union, so Mexicos value of trade with the United States is large. Brazil is far from both the United Sta

6、tes and European Union, thus, Brazils volume of trade with the United States and with the European Union is generally equivalent. Mexicos volume of trade is larger than Brazils, for two reasons: one is that Mexico is adjacent to the United States which is a large economy; the other is that Mexico is

7、 one of the members of NAFTA. Brazil is far from any large economy, and the size of the economy for the countries which have signed free trade agreements with Brazil is relatively small. 墨西哥與美國毗鄰，但是距離歐盟很遠(yuǎn)，因此它與美國的貿(mào)易量很大。巴西 離美國和歐盟都很遠(yuǎn)，因此巴西與美國和歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當(dāng)。墨西哥貿(mào)易 量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨西哥離大經(jīng)濟(jì)體美國近，另一方面由于它是 北美貿(mào)易協(xié)定的成員

8、國之一。巴西遠(yuǎn)離任何一個(gè)大經(jīng)濟(jì)體，與它簽訂自由貿(mào)易 協(xié)定的國家經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)模都比較小。 Q3:Equation (2.1) says that trade between any two countries is proportional to the product of their GDPs. Does this mean that the GDP of every country in the world were to increase by 50%, world trade would increase by 125%? Analyze the question using the sim

9、ple example shown in Table 2-2. 方程(2.1) 表明兩個(gè)國家之間的貿(mào)易和它們的 GDP 乘積成正比。這是否意味著如果 每個(gè)國家的 GDP 增加 50%, 世界的貿(mào)易量就增加 125%？分析這個(gè)問題用表格 2-2 的簡單例子。 A3:Yes. If both countriesGDP increase by 50%, other things equal, multiplying the right hand side of equation (2.1) by (1+50%)*(1+50%)=225% and multiplying the left hand s

10、ide of equation (2.1) by 1+125%=225%, therefore, the volume of trade will increase 125%. Using Table 2-2, if four countriesGDP all increase 50%, the volume of trade will increase 125% correspondingly, so the first line of the table will become: 1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 Country As GDP

11、 increases to 4*(1+50%) =6 (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4). According to the assumption, the results are reasonable because the results mean that part of country As income is consumed on imports and part of country As income is consumed on domestic products, although the portion consumed domestically is smaller

12、than that of imports. 是的。如果兩個(gè)國家的 GDP 均增加 50%，其他條件不變，方程(2.1) 的右邊乘以(1+50%) *(1+50%)=225%, 方程式的左邊乘以 1+125%=225%，所以，世界的貿(mào)易量就增加 125%。 結(jié)合表格 2-2，如果四個(gè)國家的 GDP 都增加 50%倍，貿(mào)易量也增加 125%，則表格第一行 的數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)為：1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 A 國的 GDP 增加到 4*(1+50%)=6 (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4)。根據(jù)假設(shè)，這個(gè)結(jié)果是合理的因?yàn)檫@意味 著 A 國的支出一部分從國

13、外進(jìn)口一部分收入用于消費(fèi)本國的產(chǎn)品，雖然用于本國消費(fèi)的部 分少于對其他國家的進(jìn)口。 Q4: Over the past few decades, East Asian economies have increased their share of world GDP. Similarly, intra-East Asian trade - that is, trade among East Asian nations - has grown as a share of world trade. More than that, East Asian countries 3 do an incre

14、asing share of their trade with each other. Explain why, using the gravity model. 在過去的幾十年中，東亞國家增加了它們在世界 GDP 中的份額。同樣，不 僅東亞國家整體的貿(mào)易在世界貿(mào)易中的份額增加了，而且東亞國家內(nèi)相互間的 貿(mào)易也增加了。應(yīng)用引力模型解釋這一現(xiàn)象。 A4: In the past, East Asian countries are all small economies, meaning that their size of economies is small and they are unab

15、le to import a lot of goods. As these East Asian countries become richer, the demand increases and they can import more than before. Considering that East Asian countries have been rich countries, they become trading partners with each other; however, they mainly imported goods from rich countries.

16、Based on gravity model, even if the distance between South Korea and Taiwan is small, the volume of the two countries is very small due to their small size of economies. But now, because their GDP have increased, the volume of trade between the two countries increased correspondingly. 之前，東亞國家都是小經(jīng)濟(jì)體，

17、這說明它們的市場規(guī)模很小，不能大量進(jìn)口。隨著它 們越來越富裕，消費(fèi)需求增加，它們也就能更多地進(jìn)口了。這樣，之前它們主要向富國出 口，現(xiàn)在它們自己成為了富國，互相也就成為了貿(mào)易對象。根據(jù)引力模型，當(dāng)韓國和臺灣 GDP 規(guī)模很小時(shí)，意味著盡管兩國的距離很近，但是兩國之間的貿(mào)易量很小?，F(xiàn)在它們 GDP 增 加了，它們之間的貿(mào)易量也隨之增大了。 Q5:A century ago, most French imports came from relatively distant locations: North America, Latin America, and Asia. Today, most

18、French imports come from other European countries. How does this fit with the changing types of goods that make up world trade? 一個(gè)世紀(jì)以前，法國的進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品來自相對遙遠(yuǎn)的地區(qū)：北美、拉丁美洲，和 亞洲。今天，法國絕大部分進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品來自其他歐洲國家。這種變化是如何迎合 不斷變化的世界貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品結(jié)構(gòu)的？ A5:A century ago, each countrys trading products are determined by the country s climat

19、e and geography. The climate and natural resources endowments in French are very similar to that of other European countries; therefore, French can only import different products, such as, cotton, rubber, and etc, from other western hemisphere (North America, Latin America) and Asia. However, after

20、industrial revolution, manufacturing trade increased dramatically. With the development of transportation and communicate technology, Frenchs trade volume with other European countries increases correspondingly, as the gravity model predicted directly. 一個(gè)世紀(jì)以前，各國貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品是由氣候和地理?xiàng)l件決定的。法國的氣候和自 然資源稟賦和歐洲其他國家很

21、相似，這樣法國只能從西半球其他國家、亞洲進(jìn) 口像棉花、橡膠這樣的產(chǎn)品，從歐洲其他國家進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品很少。工業(yè)革命之后， 制造品貿(mào)易增長，并且隨著交通和通訊的改進(jìn)繼續(xù)擴(kuò)張，因此法國轉(zhuǎn)向與歐洲 其他經(jīng)濟(jì)體大量開展貿(mào)易是自然而然的，這就是引力模型的一個(gè)直接預(yù)測。 Chapter 3 1Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana producti

22、on it is 2. aGraph out the production possibilities frontier: bWhat is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas? 5 . 1 Lb La a a cIn the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be? Homes PPF 0 200 400 600 800 200400600800 Qapple Qbanana In the absence of trade,

23、 since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only when will both goods be produced. So LbLaba /aa /PP1.5 /PP ba 在沒有貿(mào)易時(shí)，因?yàn)閯诜绞俏ㄒ坏纳a(chǎn)要素，并且供應(yīng)決定取決于個(gè)體嘗試最大化他 們的在競爭經(jīng)濟(jì)的收入，只有當(dāng)兩件物品將被生產(chǎn)。 因此 2H

24、ome is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreigns unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1. aGraph Foreigns production possibilities frontier: bConstruct the world relative supply curve. 3Now s

25、uppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples. aGraph the relative demand curve along with the relative supply curve: abba /PP/DD When the market achieves its equilibrium, we have 1 b a )( D D b a b b a a P P QQ QQ RD i

26、s a hyperbola x y 1 Foreigns PPF 0 200 400 600 800 1000 80160 240 320 400 Q*apple Q*banana bWhat is the equilibrium relative price of apples? The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RS curves. RD: y x 1 RS: 5 5 , 5 . 1 5 . 1 , 5 . 0( 5 . 0 )5 . 0 , 0

27、y y y x x x 25 . 0yx 2/bPaP ee cDescribe the pattern of trade. ba b e a e baPPPPPP/ In this two-country world, Home will specialize in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. dShow that both Home and

28、Foreign gain from trade. International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere within the colored lines, which lie outside the countries production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficie

29、nt method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreig

30、n could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade. 國際貿(mào)易允許本國和外國任何地方在分界線之內(nèi)消耗，在一國生產(chǎn)可能性邊境之 外說謊。 并且間接方法，專門研究導(dǎo)致一生產(chǎn)比直接生產(chǎn)然后只換與其他國家，是 一個(gè)高效率的方法。 在沒有貿(mào)易時(shí)，首頁可能由前面二個(gè)蘋果獲取三個(gè)香蕉，并且 外國可能由一前面五個(gè)香蕉獲取。 貿(mào)易允許每個(gè)國家為一個(gè)蘋果換二個(gè)香蕉。 首 頁只能由前面二個(gè)蘋果然后獲取四個(gè)香蕉，當(dāng)外國時(shí)能由前面二個(gè)香蕉獲取一個(gè)蘋 果。 因此首頁和從貿(mào)易的外國獲取。

31、 4Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of world production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case? RD: y x 1 RS: 5 5 , 5 . 1 5 . 1 , 1 ( 1 ) 1 , 0 y y y x x x 5 . 1 3 2

32、yx 5 . 1/bPaP ee In this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreign

33、gains from trade. 在這種情況下，外國將專門研究香蕉生產(chǎn)，出口香蕉和進(jìn)口蘋果。 但是本國同時(shí)將 生產(chǎn)香蕉和蘋果。 并且香蕉的機(jī)會(huì)成本根據(jù)蘋果的本國的依然是同樣。 因此本國不 獲取也不丟失，而是從貿(mào)易的外國獲取。 5Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as production in both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilib

34、rium relative price. How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4? In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved, so the effective laborremains the same. So the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from

35、 trade. But Foreign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4. 6 ”Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced down to the same level. You cant import a $5 shirt without importing the $2.50 wage that goes

36、with it.” Discuss. In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Koreas low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise th

37、e welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. So this pauper labor argument is wrong. 實(shí)際上，相對工資率取決于比較生產(chǎn)力和對物品的相對需求。 Koreas 低工 資反射事實(shí)韓國比多數(shù)產(chǎn)業(yè)的美國較不有生產(chǎn)力的。 實(shí)際上，與一個(gè)較不有生 產(chǎn)力，低工資國家的貿(mào)易可能培養(yǎng)國家福利和生活水平有高生產(chǎn)力的，例如美 國。 因此這個(gè)叫花子勞方論據(jù)是錯(cuò)誤的。 7Japanese labor productivity is roughl

38、y the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United

39、 States, because our comparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument? The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries. So there are four aspects sho

40、uld be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the reasonable logic. 所有產(chǎn)業(yè)的競爭優(yōu)勢取決于產(chǎn)業(yè)的相對生產(chǎn)力和橫跨產(chǎn)業(yè)的親戚薪水。 因此，在我們得出 結(jié)論之前，有四個(gè)方面應(yīng)該考慮到： 產(chǎn)業(yè)和日本和美國，不僅二個(gè)服務(wù)部門的服務(wù)部 門。 不因此這個(gè)聲明在合理的邏輯

41、出了價(jià)。 8Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts, the purchasing power of their incomes is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation. (Hint: Think abou

42、t wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lower service costs. And U.S. does no

43、t have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts. 美國的相對更高的購買力由它的在服務(wù)的相當(dāng)?shù)馗叩纳a(chǎn)力承受并且維護(hù)。 由于大 多那些服務(wù) non-traded，日語不可能受益于那些更低的服務(wù)費(fèi)用。 并且美國不必須面對 服務(wù)的一個(gè)更低的國際價(jià)格。 因此日語的購買力是他們的美國相對物的三分之一。 9How does the fact that many goods are

44、non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade? Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goods decrease. 10We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries. Suppose that there are

45、 many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try constructing the world relative supply curve.) Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative

46、demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods. Chapter 4 1.In 1986, the price of oil

47、on world markets dropped sharply. Since the United States is an oil-importing country, this was widely regarded as good for the U.S. economy. Yet in Texas and Louisiana 1986 was a year of economic decline. Why? It can deduce that Texas and Louisiana are oil-producing states of United States. So when

48、 the price of oil on world markets declined, the real wage of this industry fell in terms of other goods. This might be the reason of economic decline in these two states in 1986. 2。An economy can produce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and land. The total supply of labor is 10

49、0 units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two goods depends on labor input as follows: To analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mix changes as labor is shifted between the two sectors. a.Graph the production functions for good 1 and good 2. ),()

50、,( 22221111 LKQQLKQQ b.Graph the production possibility frontier. Why is it curved? P Pr ro od du uc ct ti io on n F Fu un nc ct ti io on n f fo or r G Go oo od d 1 1 0 0 2 25 5. .1 1 3 38 8. .1 1 4 48 8. .6 6 5 57 7. .5 5 6 66 6 7 73 3. .6 6 8 80 0. .7 7 8 87 7. .4 4 9 93 3. .9 9 1 10 00 0 0 10 20

51、30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0102030405060708090100 L La ab bo or r I In np pu ut t f fo or r G Go oo od d 1 1 O Ou ut tp pu ut t P Pr ro od du uc ct ti io on n F Fu un nc ct ti io on n f fo or r G Go oo od d 2 2 0 0 3 39 9. .8 8 5 52 2. .5 5 6 61 1. .8 8 6 69 9. .3 3 7 75 5. .8 8 8 81 1. .5 5 8 86 6. .

52、7 7 9 91 1. .4 4 9 95 5. .5 5 1 10 00 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0102030405060708090100 L La ab bo or r I In np pu ut t f fo or r G Go oo od d 2 2 O Ou ut tp pu ut t Q1 Q2 L1 L2 PPF ),( 2222 LKQQ ),( 1111 LKQQ 100 100 The PPF is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good.

53、 The total labor supply is fixed. So as L1 rises, MPL1 falls; correspondingly, as L2 falls, MPL2 rises. So PP gets steeper as we move down it to the right. 2.The marginal product of labor curves corresponding to the production functions in problem2 are as follows: a.Suppose that the price of good 2

54、relative to that of good 1 is 2. Determine graphically the wage rate and the allocation of labor between the two sectors. With the assumption that labor is freely mobile between sectors, it will move from the low-wage sector to the high-wage sector until wages are equalized. So in equilibrium, the w

55、age rate is equal to the value of labors marginal product. 假設(shè)勞方自由地是在區(qū)段之間的機(jī)動(dòng)性，它從低工資的區(qū)段將移動(dòng)向 high-wage 區(qū) 段，直到薪水被調(diào)平。 因此在平衡，工資率與 labors 邊際產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值是相等的。 2/ 122211 PPPMPLPMPL The abscissa of point of intersection illustrated above should be between (20, 30). Since we only have to find out the approximate answ

56、er, linear function could be employed. The labor allocation between the sectors is approximately L1=27 and L2=73. The wage rate is approximately 0.98. 被說明的交點(diǎn)橫坐標(biāo)以上應(yīng)該之間(20， 30)。 因?yàn)槲覀儽仨氈话l(fā)現(xiàn)近似答復(fù)，線 性函數(shù)可能被使用。在區(qū)段之間的 The 辛苦分派是大約 L1=27 和 L2=73。 工資率 是大約 0.98。 b.Using the graph drawn for problem 2, determine th

57、e output of each sector. Then confirm graphically that the slop of the production possibility frontier at that point equals the relative price. Q1 Q2 L1 L2 PPF ),( 2222 LKQQ ),( 1111 LKQQ 100 100 2 1 slope The relative price is P2/P1=2 and we have got the approximate labor allocation, so we can empl

58、oy the linear function again to calculate the approximate output of each sector: Q1=44 and Q2=90. 相對價(jià)格是 P2/P1=2，并且我們有近似辛苦分派，因此我們可以再使用線性函數(shù) 計(jì)算每個(gè)區(qū)段近似產(chǎn)品： Q1=44 和 Q2=90。 c.Suppose that the relative price of good 2 falls to 1. Repeat (a) and (b). The relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to

59、 be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (1=62, L2=38). This also leads to an output adjustment, that is, production of good 2 falls to 68 units and production of good 1 rises to 76 units. And the wage rate is approximately equal to 0.74. 在導(dǎo)致的價(jià)格的相對衰

60、落的好 2 將被再分配的勞方： 勞方被畫出于生產(chǎn)好 2 并且輸入好 1 的生產(chǎn)(1=62， L2=38)。 這也導(dǎo)致輸出調(diào)整，即，好 2 個(gè)秋天 到 68 個(gè)單位的生產(chǎn)和生產(chǎn)好 1 上升到 76 個(gè)單位。 并且工資率是大約相等到 0.74。 Q1 Q2 L1 L2 PPF ),( 2222 LKQQ ),( 1111 LKQQ 100 100 1slope 2 1 slope d.Calculate the effects of the price change on the income of the specific factors in sectors 1 and 2. With the