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1、地方政府對教育補助的運用摘要:聯(lián)邦政府和州政府影響教育成果的能力,取決于地方學區(qū)在財務上和教學上如何使用政府間轉移支付。本文向政策制定者簡短介紹教育補助的經濟學分析和教育財政改革的意義。概述聯(lián)邦和州政府用于增加地方教育開支所運用的教育補助,總結州政府運用不同形式補助的經驗。關鍵詞:教育補助,地方學區(qū),教育財政改革1 引言在美國,教育服務的供給有一個重要的特征,那就是政府產生稅收的責任與政府提供教育服務的責任基本是分離的。地方政府,無論是獨立的學區(qū)還是自治市,對提供初等教育和中等教育負有幾乎全部的責任。但是,在用于支持教育的稅收中,這些地方政府只提供了大約45.5%的部分,州政府(大約48.1%

2、)和聯(lián)邦政府(大約6.4%)提供了其余的稅收。這些由州政府和聯(lián)邦政府產生的的稅收,通過復雜多變的政府間轉移支付或撥款的的方式,轉移到地方政府。政府間撥款的結構很復雜,部分原因在于稅收的路徑并不明確。首先,一些聯(lián)邦政府基金先付給州政府,再撥給學區(qū);而其他聯(lián)邦基金直接撥給地方學校部門。其次,在聯(lián)邦水平和州水平上都有大量的教育撥款,并且這兩種層次的撥款都有很多目的,或者是資助特定的教育部門,或者是補助特別問題,或者是用特定方式影響學校行為。最后,不同州的政府間轉移支付,在數(shù)量和結構上都有很大不同。一些補助針對于特殊地區(qū),而另一些是對教育的一般性支持。一些撥款按一次性、學生人均的標準分配給學校,而另一

3、些根據(jù)地方稅收或者支出計劃,有效計算匹配的需求。一些撥款對所有學區(qū)平等對待,一些明確用于重新分配資源??紤]到制度結構,明顯看出聯(lián)邦政府和州政府影響教育結果的能力,取決于地方學區(qū)如何在財務上和教學是哪個使用這些政府間轉移支付。本文向政策制定者簡短介紹教育撥款的經濟學分析,得出教育財政改革的意義。我們考慮如下議題:(1)地方學區(qū)使用撥款在何種程度上能增加教育開支、擴大教育服務?(2)由撥款產生的額外教育支出與撥款本身的特性有何種關系?(3)如果撥款指定用于一種特定的教育功能,這些額外的資源在何種程度上會增加學校預算中的其他教育功能?(4)州和聯(lián)邦的教育撥款在總體上改變了公共教育的性質了嗎?或者它們

4、僅僅支持欠富裕地區(qū)?(5)當州政府選擇改革基礎教育和中等教育財政體制的一系列選項時,地方政府對教育撥款如何使用的跡象,在改革最有效性這個問題上,能夠說明什么?在下一部分,我們就州和聯(lián)邦用于地方教育支出的撥款類型做一概述,然后根據(jù)州政府的經驗,總結不同教育撥款形式的實證分析。我們據(jù)文獻得出一些結論和教育財政改革的意義。2 教育撥款的結構我們至少用三種尺度描繪教育撥款的特征。一種尺度是產生稅收和提供撥款的政府的層級(聯(lián)邦還是州)。一種尺度是撥款制定項目的“寬度”(撥款是一般性支持還是針對特定功能分類)。一種尺度是分配機制(要求接受撥款的地方政府有附加投入,還是僅僅增加地方政府資源)。來自州政府的一

5、般性教育支持,無論是按生均形式的基本補助,還是其他形式的平均化補助,其補助的總額在1995-1996年占了地方教育稅收總額約三分之一,占了所有教育補助的61%左右。這些補助一般分為兩大類。通常稱生均、一次性的補助為基本補助(foundation aid),因為生均補助提供了一個最低支出水平;州政府補助提供了基本補助,在此基礎上,地方政府可以補充。通常,一個基本補助項目的目的是提供一個基本的補助水平,減少對富裕區(qū)的補助。目前采用的基本補助公式為gi=b1+ci-r*vi式中:gi 為i學區(qū)的學生人均補助;b 為基礎性學生人均補助;ci 為i學區(qū)的成本指數(shù);r* 為公式中的基本財產稅率;vi 為i

6、學區(qū)的學生人均財產稅基。在州范圍內,每個學區(qū)之間的教育成本可能大不相同,在高成本的學區(qū),名義基本水平必須更高,才能保證與其他學區(qū)相同的實際基本水平。學區(qū)有選擇稅率的自由,其選擇的稅率可能比公式中基本財產稅率r*更高或更低。如果學區(qū)被允許選擇低于r*的稅率,那么補助就不足以彌補差距達到基本水平。這樣,除非基本補助公式中的基本財產稅率比學區(qū)采用的實際稅率更高,教育支出就不會增加。如果學區(qū)被允許選擇高于r*的稅率,基本補助項目就使得學區(qū)增加稅收,在教育開支上超過基本水平。因此,最新一些基本補助計劃列入了一些對學區(qū)行為的限制條款,比如強制實行最低稅率,或最低支出,或要求地方學區(qū)維持稅收。保證稅基(gt

7、b),又稱學區(qū)能力均等化補助。這種補助方案旨在為每一個學區(qū)提供一個相同的、基礎性的學生生均稅基,有別于基本補助計劃中設定一個基礎的學生生均最低支出水平。雖然在gtb方案中,如果學區(qū)選擇不同的稅率,仍然不能確保學區(qū)間生均支出的均等化,但該方案有效的為各學區(qū)提供了相同的基礎稅基。另外,gtb是一種配套而非一次性的補助,減少學區(qū)的教育成本,有著與基本補助不同的經濟效應。gtb補助的一般公式為:gi= b+(v* 一vi)*ri式中gi 為i區(qū)學生的人均補助;b 為基本補助;v* 為保證的學生生均稅基;vi為i區(qū)學生的人均財產稅基;ri 為i區(qū)財產稅率或被允許的最高保證稅率。在純粹gtb模型中,b=0

8、,ri是沒有任何最大化的地方稅率。在這種情況下,如果學區(qū)的生均稅基vi比保證生均稅基v* 少,學區(qū)就能得到正的補助,而補助金額與學區(qū)選擇的稅率呈正相關。實際上,補助包括了一個學區(qū)支出的常數(shù)分數(shù),等于vi/ v*。在此模型的變形中,一些州政府把基本補助模型與gtb模型結合起來,在保證稅基外提供了基本生均補助,也就是,設定b>0。在這種情況下,如果于vi= v*,學區(qū)就能獲得恰好等于基本補助數(shù)額的生均補助,當vi> v*時,補助就會減少直至為0(負數(shù)補助通常不會運用)。在gtb模型中,vi= v*的學區(qū)稅率的增加會導致更多的生均補助。地方學區(qū)生均支出增加1美元,邊際成本就為vi/ v*

9、美元。 除了州政府的一般性補助,聯(lián)邦教育撥款和來自州政府的指定撥款占了所有教育撥款總額的近39%。幾乎所有對初等和中等教育的聯(lián)邦撥款用于特殊地區(qū)和貧困地區(qū)。唯一一個主要的一般性教育撥款是“聯(lián)邦補助”(federal impact aid),作為“直接”專項撥款的一部分。其他的主要聯(lián)邦專項撥款用于支持不利背景學生,學生午餐項目促進學生營養(yǎng)等等。這些專項撥款根據(jù)不同類學生數(shù)量等原則分配給州,然后由州根據(jù)一些規(guī)則在學區(qū)之間分配。這些資助的大部分是一次性的,數(shù)額通常由學生的特點決定。3 州政府一般性教育補助(一次性補助)傳統(tǒng)的基本補助向學區(qū)提供額外收入,通常等于目標補助金總額和地方特定稅率產生的稅收之

10、間的差額。教育支出需求對收入一般是無彈性的,其測量的彈性在0.40-0.65之間,(也就是說,收入每增加百分之一,支出增加百分之0.4),一次性的基本補助預期只能在相當有限的程度上增加教育支出。補助的一部分預期會產生額外(教育)支出,剩余部分一般減少地方稅(或增加公共教育之外的商品的消費)。舉例來說,假設一個人均收入20000美元的學區(qū)決定無州補助的生均支出為3000元,教育需求的收入彈性為0.5,州向此學區(qū)提供生均2000美元的補助,則教育支出預期只會增加百分之五,或150美元。但是,有經驗證據(jù)表明,與收入增加相比,同樣數(shù)額的一次性撥款對政府支出的影響大得多,稱為“蒼蠅紙效應”。人們提出很多

11、理論解釋這種效應為何出現(xiàn),但是它的本質是:由于各種原因,選民可能認為來自州政府的補助與他們私人收入增加不一樣。這表明由補助增加引起的政府支出是收入增加引起支出的二至三倍。繼續(xù)解釋上面的例子,如果補助引起的教育支出增加額三倍于收入引起的增加額,那么2000美元補助會導致生均教育支出由原來的3000美元增加到3450美元。補助的大部分仍然用于減少地方稅。關于60年代和70年代美國州政府一般性補助的支出效應的研究證明了這些預測。州政府補助增加了地方教育支出,但只是在相當有限的程度上增加(not dollar-to-dollar)。tsang與levin(1983)指出州對學區(qū)的整筆撥款使得教育支出的

12、邊際增加為0.3-0.7美元。也就是撥款的每一元中,0.7-0.3美元用于了減稅。正是由于州政府發(fā)現(xiàn)非限制一般性基本補助并沒有促進教育支出的均等化,在70年代后期和80年代,很多州開始才采用學區(qū)能力均等化結構或保證稅基。gtb補助是匹配的,因為地方稅收的增加產生了相應的撥款金額的增加。實際上,gtb補助允許地方學區(qū)用折扣“購買”額外的生均支出,用少于一美元的價格購買價值一美元的教育支出。但是,因為教育支出的需求似乎既是無價格彈性的,也是無收入彈性的,加之匹配產生的減價,所以學區(qū)能力均等化補助會增加教育支出,但是增加額少于補助金額。舉個例子,假設一個地方學區(qū)決定無州補助的生均教育支出為3000美

13、元,現(xiàn)在州政府引入能力均等化教育補助項目,負責學區(qū)教育支出的三分之二,這還是一個欠富裕學區(qū)。如此,此補助項目使地方教育成本降低了67%(從1美元降低到0.33美元)。教育需求對于價格的彈性估計為-0.15至-0.5,。假設價格彈性為-0.3,則補助引起了生均教育支出預期增加20%或600美元。此學區(qū)現(xiàn)在在每個學生身上花費3600美元支出,接受了2400美元的州政府補助。最后結果是,地方稅從最初的生均3000美元降低到1200美元。實際上,補助金額中的600美元用于了高等教育支出,1800元用于了代替地方稅。由于這個原因,gtb補助不能在學區(qū)之間實現(xiàn)生均支出的均等化。雖然gtb為較貧窮學區(qū)提供了

14、比富裕學區(qū)更大的減價,教育需求的無彈性表明貧窮學區(qū)并不能產生足夠多的教育支出來縮小差距。了解這一點非常重要:如果補助項目的結構不變的話,增加州政府補助項目的總金額不能改變它們效果的有限性。如果教育需求是價格無彈性的,絕大部分的補助金額將會用于較少地方稅收,不管教育支出價格會降低多少。當然,增加教育支出或許并不是一般性教育補助的唯一目標,或者根本不是其目標。其他可選擇的目標包括提供財產稅一般性減稅,在學區(qū)間均等化財產稅率,或是教育財政制度“財富中性”。雖然gtb補助似乎并沒有增加足夠的支出使學區(qū)間支出差異有實質性的縮小,但它確實減少了地方稅收負擔,使得財產稅率均等化。因為低收入低支出的學區(qū)稅率往

15、往比較高,并且這些學區(qū)通過gtb獲得更多補助,地方學區(qū)稅率差異可以大大減少,即使支出差異沒有減少。同樣的,教育的財富中性即在地方教育支出和地方平均財富之間沒有任何關系可以通過gtb形式的撥款實現(xiàn),即使撥款的絕大部分導致了地方稅收減免而非教育支出增加。實質上,gtb撥款的價格效一定足以抵消教育支出需求的財富效應回到教育支出上來,要注意到無限額配套補助,(例如能力均等化或者gtb教育補助)增加政府支出的數(shù)額要比同樣數(shù)額的一次性一般收入分享還要多(在這里,一般收入分享數(shù)額足夠大,使得其引起的政府支出和配套支出相等)。雖然學區(qū)在這兩種情況下都可以選擇相同的教育支出,但這并不是因為與配套補助相關的價格激

16、勵作用。在上述例子中,支付三分之二教育成本的能力均等化補助產生了2400美元的補助和600美元的支出增加額。2400美元的一次性基本補助會使支出增加180美元(假設沒有蒼蠅紙效應),或者附有蒼蠅紙張效應的540美元。無論在那種情況下,配套的能力均等化補助都更有激勵性。因為傳統(tǒng)的非限制基本補助和能力均等化補助都不能有效地縮小學區(qū)之間的差距,許多州在90年代開始采用要求地方政府財政支出的基本補助。無限制基本補助和能力均等化補助的經驗是學區(qū)用補助金額的大部分用于替代地方稅收。地方政府這些行為可以通過如下手段限制:指定地方政府征收最低稅率,征收用于生均最低支出的稅收,或要求學區(qū)接受補助時不能降低稅收水

17、平。在90年代改革教育財政制度的州這些提議很普遍。例如在1994年密歇根改革中,學區(qū)接受的補助,其生均補助金額相當于目標支出水平和由地方強制統(tǒng)一財產稅稅收之間的差額。這樣,州政府實際上強制學區(qū)接受一個最低有效地教育支出水平。學區(qū)不能使用補助降低地方稅收。要求地方政府財政支出的基本補助會有如下條件:對允許的教育支出上限和高支出學區(qū)的稅收進行限制。例如,fulton(1997)指出,在1989年和1995年間實施新型教育財政體制的八個州都采用了一些限制措施。這些限制措施旨在防止或減少這些學區(qū)中可能會出的支出增長,進而有助于減少學區(qū)間的支出差距。總的來說,我們已經回答了引言中提出的前兩個問題。無限制

18、的一般性教育補助會增加地方教育支出,但效果有限(not dollar-to-dollar)。無限制配套補助比有限制配套補助更為有激勵性,但是不能減少學區(qū)間支出差距。這些局限性由補助的結構和教育需求的經濟學分析得出。4 專項補助專項補助用于有限制的支出項目,通常根據(jù)一定的公式分配,該公式依據(jù)外生的學區(qū)特點變量計算。因此,專項補助通常是對學區(qū)的生均、一次性補助;當學區(qū)改變稅收或支出時,補助數(shù)量不變,但當用于公式的學區(qū)特點改變時,補助可能會變化。關于這些補助的一個關鍵條件是:對專項補助用途的名義限制措施是否會影響學區(qū)對補助的實際使用。學區(qū)是否將補助用在它專用的方面了嗎?首先應該注意到,只有當學區(qū)愿意

19、減少教育支出時,對專項補助用途的限制措施才對學區(qū)有影響。如果學區(qū)愿意花費比補助更多的錢用于教育支出,等于補助金額的地方基金就會轉而用于其他地方。地方基金被認為是可以被整個預算替代的。實際上,至少有一個研究表明,在大多數(shù)情況下,州和地方已經在目標項目上花費了比最低要求更多的錢,以獲得最大補助金額。5 教育財政改革的意義對教育財政問題和結果的簡短調查說明了未來教育財政改革的一系列意義。首先,沒有最低稅率或支出要求的無限制一般性補助在地方財產稅減稅和減少稅率差異上更加有效,其次才是增加地方教育支出和減少支出差異。第二,與一般性補助相比,專項補助對支出的激勵效果更強,雖然這種效果根本不局限于接受補助的

20、目標地區(qū)。第三、有限制基本補助帶有最低稅率支出的要求似乎對支出有重大影響,但是其并非接受補助的學區(qū)自愿的結果。第四、似乎對限制性基本補助來說,反映學區(qū)間教育成本差異非常重要。第五、應該注意到本文中幾乎所有證據(jù)都聚焦于補助如何改變學區(qū)的財政決策、特別是生均支出,而非對學區(qū)教育服務和教育產出的影響。local government responses to education grantsfisher, ronald c and papke, leslie edepartment of economics ,michigan state universityintroduction:in the

21、provision of education in the united states, one important characteristic is that governmental response for generating revenue is substantially separated from the responsibility for producing the service. local governments,either independent school districts or municipalities, have essentially full

22、responsibility for providing or producing public primary and secondary education. these local governments, however, generate only about 45.5 percent of the revenue that they spend on producing education service. state governments (about 48.1 percent) and the federal government(6.4 percent) provide t

23、he remainder. these revenues generated by the states and federal government are transferred to the local school districts through a complex and varied set of intergovernmental transfers or grants.this grant structure is complex partly because the path of revenue is not always clear, with some federa

24、l government funds being paid to the states and then passed on to the local districts, while other federal funds are transferred directly to local school governments. an additional complicating factor is that there are a myriad of education grants at both the federal and state levels, each intended

25、to fund a particular component of education or to compensate for a special problem or to influence school behavior in a particular way. finally, both the magnitude and structure of intergovernmental grants to schools vary substantially among the states. some grania are targeted to narrow categorical

26、 areas, while others are for general support of the education function. some are allocated to schools on a lump-sum, per-student basis, while others depend upon local tax or spending decisions, effectively creating a matching requirement. some treat all school distracts equally, while others are int

27、ended explicitly to redistribute resources. given this institutional structure, it is apparent that the abiliiy of the federal government and states to influence educational outcomes depends on how local school districts respond-financially and educationally-to these intergovernmental grants. our pu

28、rpose is to provide a brief primer for policymakers about the economics of education grants and to draw implications for school finance reform.we consider the following issues: (1) to what degree do local school districts use grant funds to increase spending and expand educational services? (2) how

29、does the additional spending or service that results from grants depend on the characteristics of the grant itself? (3) if grants are intended to finance a particular functional area, to what extent are those additional resources used to expand spending or service in a different functional area of t

30、he school budget? (4) have state and federal education grants in aggregate changed the nature of public education substantially or have they simply served to support less wealthy districts? (5) as states consider a variety of options for changing the finance and provision of primany and secondary ed

31、ucation, what does the evidence about local responses to education grants suggest about the most effective characteristics of reforms?in the next section, we provide an over-view of the types of education grants that states and the federal government: have used to aid local spending. we then summari

32、ze the empirical findings from states' experiences with different forms of education finance. we conclude with some lessons from this literature and their implications for school finance reform.structure of education grantswe characterize education grants by at least three dimensions. one dimens

33、ion is the level of government (federal or state)generating the revenue and providing the transfer. the other two dimensions reflect the breadth of service targeted by the grant (whether it is intended to provide general support or support for a particular functional category) and the allocation mec

34、hanism (whether the grant requires matching effort on the part of the recipe ent government or merely adds to resources). general educational support from stategovernments, either in the form of per-studentfoundation aid or some type of equalizing aid, represents the bulk of education grants, amount

35、ing to more than $97 billion and accounting for about one-third of total local education revenue a:nd about 61 percent of all education grants in 1995-6. these grants generally fall into two main classifications. perstudent,lump-sum grants are usually referred toas foundation aid because the per-pup

36、il grant represents a minimum expenditure level; the state aid provides a basic foundation on top of which local revenue supplements may be added. in general, a foundation aid program requires a basic grant per pupil and perhaps a way of reducing the grant for richer distracts. a generic formula for

37、 a foundation aid grant isgi=b1+ci-r*viwhereg=per pupil grant to district i,b=basic per-pupil grant or foundation level,c=cost index for district i,r'=basic property tax rate set in the formula, andv=per-pupil property tax base in district i.in states where there are substantial differences in c

38、osts among districts, the nominal foundation level must be greater in districts with relatively higher costs to ensure equal real foundation spending.districts have the option of selecting tax rates, which may be less or greater than r* . if districts are allowed to select rates less than r* , then

39、the grant will not be sufficient for the district to reach the foundation level. thus, unless the basic: required tax rate in the foundation aid formula is set high relative to the actual rates employed by school districts, spending will not be increased. if districts are allowed to select rates gre

40、ater than r* , foundation aid programs allow districts to spend more than the foundation amount by raising local taxes. therefore, most recent foundation aid programs include some restrictions on local district behavior, such as imposing a minimum tax rate or minimum expenditure or requiring local d

41、istricts to maintain tax effort.guaranteed tax base (gtb) or district power equalizing grants, on the other hand, are intended to provide an equal, basic perpupil property tax base to each district, rather than the basic per-pupil minimum expenditure level of the foundation programs. per-pupil spend

42、ing may still differ among school districts if they choose different property tax rates, but the aid program effectively provides the same basic tax base to which the selected rate is applied. a gtb plan involves matching grants that reduce the price of education to the school districts, which is an

43、 important economic difference from foundation grants.a gtb grant formula requires, at least, that the gtb and the allowed tax rate be specified. the general formula for grants of this type isgi= b+(v* 一vi)*riwhereb basic or foundation grant,v* guaranteed per-pupil tax base,vi per-pupil tax base in

44、district i,r property tax rate in district i or maximum rate allowed for the guarantee.in a pure gtb program, b = 0 and is the local tax rate without any maximum. in that case, districts receive positive grants if their per-pupil tax basis less than the guaranteed tax base (v*), with the grants bein

45、g positively related to the tax rate selected by the district. in essence, the grant covers a constant fraction of district spending, equal to vi/v*. in one variation on this program, some states mix the foundation and gtb styles by providing a basic per-pupil grant in addition t o the guaranteed ba

46、se, that is, they set b is greater than 0. in that case, a district receives a per-pupil grant exactly equal to the foundation amount if vi = v*, with that grant being reduced if vi is greater than v* until g is zero (negative grants generally are not used). with gtb grants, an increase in a distric

47、t's tax rate will lead to a larger grant per pupil for districts with vi is less than v*. thus, the marginal cost or price to the local district of increasing per-pupil spending by $1 is vi/v* if vi is less thanv*, and $1 otherwise. it is difficult to summarize the actual types of aid programs u

48、sed by the states because each typically has a number of different components and because the structure of the aid programs often includes fiscal features specific to each state. the education commission of the states reported for the 1993-4 year that foundation aid programs were being used by about

49、 41 states, with most of those determining the per-pupil grant based on the tax wealth of the districts. of the 41 states using a type of foundation aid, 22 also required mandatory local fiscal effort in some way. power-equalizing grants were used by about seven states, while two states were reporte

50、d as having full state funding of education. other than this state general support, federal grants for education and targeted grants from states accounted for nearly 39 percent of all education grants. these amounted to about $60.6 billion or 21 percent of school revenue in 1995-6. nearly all federa

51、l aid for primary and secondary education is targeted or related to a specific functional area or need. the only major general support for education from the federal government is federal impact aid, a component of the "direct aid" category shown in table 1. impact aid payments are largely

52、 intended to serve as payments in lieu of local taxes on federal government property or as compensation for extraordinary demands placed on the local educational system by federal government actions in the district. the other major federal categorical grants include support for educational services

53、for disadvantaged students (compensatory programs) largely under title i of the elementary and secondary education act, grants to improve child nutrition especially through the school lunch and school breakfast programs, funds for education of students with disabilities, and aid to support vocationa

54、l education. these categorical grants are distributed to states based on formulas involving numbers of students in the various categories, and the states then pass on those funds to school districts following a number of regulations. most of this aid, then, is of the lump-sum variety, with the amoun

55、t of aid received by a school driven mostly by the characteristics of its students. the remainder of education grants, which represent transfers from the state governments to local schools for specific programs or purposes, amounts to nearly $42 billion or about 17 percent of total local school dist

56、rict revenue. some of these categories of separate support are quite clearly defined. for example, the largest single category of such grants is for state support of education for students with disabilities (special education) and amounts to about $8.8 billion, which represents about 3 percent of to

57、tal local school revenue. other major categories of such grants include support for local transportation expenditures as well as grants for education of disadvantaged students and vocational education, paralleling the federal programs. again, the bulk of these state categorical grants for education

58、are lump-sum payments to schools based on student or district characteristics.responses to general state education grants (matching and lump sum) the first important policy issue we posed in the introduction is: do general state education grants induce school districts to spend more on education, an

59、d if so, by how much? in short, the answer seems to be that general state education grants, whether of the traditional foundation or power-equalizing type, can boost local spending, but not by the full amount of the grant. consequently, these general state education grants also generate a substantial amount of local tax relief. on the other hand, foundation grants that include mandatory local

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