語言學概論 總結(jié)

1、語言學概論 總結(jié)Chapter 1 - IntroductionPart One Definition of language Design features of language Functions of language Part Two Definition of linguistics The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguistics Exercises:1）Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (200

2、5)A. arbitrariness任意性 B. productivity C. cultural transmission D. finiteness有限性2）The distinction between parole言語and langue 語言was made by _. (2006)A. Halliday C. Saussure索緒爾（瑞士語言學家）B. Chomsky 喬姆斯基（美國語言學家，轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法的創(chuàng)始人）D. Bloomfield布洛姆菲爾德（美國語言學家教育家） 考點：語言流派的主要代表人物、四對概念的區(qū)分。3）Language is a tool of communi

3、cation. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _. (2010)A. an expressive function表達功能B. an informative function信息功能C. a performative function行事/施為功能D. a persuasive function勸說功能考點：語言的基本功能。信息功能、人際功能、施為功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娛樂功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。4）The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't i

4、t?" is _.A. informative B. phatic寒暄功能C. directive指示功能 D. performative What is language? P7-8Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號體系。1） Language is a system.Systematic- rule-governed受規(guī)則制約的, elements in it are arr

5、anged according to certain rules； cant be combined at will. E.g. *bkli， *I apple eat.2）Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes表示. E.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3）Language is symbolic符號的in nature.Symbolic- wor

6、ds are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention慣例. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-by Shakespeare 4）Language is primarily vocal.Vocal- the primary medium基本媒介is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. 5）Language is human-specific. 語言是人類特有

7、的Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. E.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett):P8-101） Arbitrariness 任意性2） Productivity/Creativity 創(chuàng)造性3） Duality 二重性4） Displacement移位性5） Cultural transmi

8、ssion文化傳遞性1） Arbitrariness-No logical (motivated有積極性的or intrinsic固有的) connection between sounds and meanings.Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopyn Apes ep gibber 'db.猴子唧唧叫n Roosters crow. 公雞喔喔叫n Hens cluck. 母雞咯咯嗒n Chicks peep. 小

9、雞唧唧唧n Bulls bellow. Cows moo.老牛哞哞哞n Ducks quack kwæk.鴨子嘎嘎嘎n Cats mew. 小貓喵喵叫n Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱n Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩n Pigs grunt. 小豬呼嚕嚕n Mice squeak skwik. 老鼠吱吱叫n Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese c

10、ows sound the same, but not in English and Chinese! The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign語言符號and its meaning, however, is also conventional符合習俗的. 2) Productivity / Creativity -Peculiar to是特有的human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.La

11、nguage is resourceful資源豐富的because of its duality二元性and its recursiveness ri'k:sivnis遞歸性. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly立即地understood by people who have never come across講得清楚明白that usage before.The recursive nature遞歸性of

12、 language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who . This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt麥芽that lay in the house that Jack built. 3) Dual

13、ity (double articulation) Lower level-sounds (meaningless)Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)二層性是指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)這種特性，上層結(jié)構(gòu)的單位由底層結(jié)構(gòu)的元素構(gòu)成，每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則。（Lyons, 1981) E.g. b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondary) Book (meaningful unit: higher level, primary) Questions:Can you think of som

14、e other systems with the property of duality? Why is this property generally assumed as central to language? Does animal language have this property? Hierarchy等級制度of language:The secondary level sounds(meaningless) syllables The primary level morphemes(meaningful) wordsphrasessentences ( etc.)4) Dis

15、placement-Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present (in time and space): real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away遙遠的places. E.g. A gibbon長臂猿never utters發(fā)出 a call about something he ate last year.Animal communication is normally under “immediate sti

16、mulus control” （直接刺激控制）. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus刺激 in the world or any internal state. 5) Cultural transmission-Language is culturally transmitted (thro

17、ugh teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.The story of a wolf child狼孩, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolati

18、on simply does not acquire human language. Functions of language:P10-121) referential ,ref'ren()l (to convey message and information) (所指功能，即傳達信息）2) poeticp'etk (to indulge in language for its own sake)（詩學功能，即享受語言自身的樂趣）3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions)（情感功能，即表達態(tài)度，感覺和情感

19、）4) conative'kuntiv (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests)（意動功能，即通過指令和懇求說服和影響他人）5) phatic'fætk (to establish communion with others) （寒暄功能，即與他人建立交際）6) metalingual,met'liwl (to clear up intentions and meanings). （元語言功能，弄清意圖、詞語和意義） 注：1）emotive (expressive) fun

20、ction: releases feelings. Swear words罵人話, obscenities猥褻, exclamation驚嘆詞, involuntary verbal言語的 reactions.2) phatic function: Good morning. How are you?Halliday哈利迪Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想 of language.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves

21、(e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant敬上) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 1.1 What is Linguistics語言學?P1The scientific study of human languageAims of linguistic theory:What is knowledge of language? (Competence)How is knowledge of language acquire

22、d? (Acquisition)How is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing性能/語言處理) Main branches of linguisticsP2-3n Phonetics發(fā)音/語音學n Phonology音系/音韻學n Morphology形態(tài)學 Syntax句法n Semantics語義學n Pragmatics語用學The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguisticsP3-6 n Descriptive vs

23、. prescriptive n Synchronic vs. diachronicn Speech vs. writing n Langue & parolen Competence and performance1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive Don't say X. People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in在于prescribi

24、ng how things ought to be and describing how things are.Descritptive: the linguists tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a large community actually conform遵照and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness. Prescriptive： the grammarians文法家 tries to

25、lay down制定rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over就進行辯論usage once and for all徹底地. ( right / wrong) Humorous grammar rules：Never end a sentence with a preposition.And don't start a sentence with a conjunction. It is wrong to ever split分離an infinitive不定式.No sentence fragment

26、s.2）Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. Synchronic study共時性研究- descriptio

27、n of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study歷時性研究- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 3） Speech vs. writingSpeech - primary medium of languageWriting - later developed4）Langue語言 vs. parole言語 (F. de Saussure

28、)Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole - the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.5) Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence - the id

29、eal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar vs modern linguis

30、ticsTraditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework Exercises for Chapter 11. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _.A. prescriptive B. descriptive C. subjective D. Lati

31、n-based2. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _.A. abnormal B. something to be feared       C.natural          D. unnatural3. Of the “words” listed below, _is not an English word. A. spin    &#

32、160;B. lkbi     C.strikt     D. desk4. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as _ linguistics.A. comparative比較的     B. applied     C. synchronic     D. diachronic

33、5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bang     B. photo    C. typewriter    D. rumble6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech because _.A. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.B. The spoken form is more bas

34、ic than the written form.C. Writing precedes speech in English language.D. All the languages today have both spoken and written forms.7. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that

35、 determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.8. Language is _ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. systematic  

36、;    B. culturally transmitted      C. intuitive 憑直覺獲知的     D. productive9. _ studies the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.A. Phonology  B. Semantics  C. Syntax  D. Morphology10. The study of l

37、anguage as a whole is often called _ linguistics.A. general     B. applied      B. generative     D. particular11. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the

38、_ nature of language.A. productive     B. dual     C. arbitrary    D. displacing12. Which of the following is not a major branch of linguistics?A. phonetics     B. phonology    C. speech    

39、 D. syntax13. The application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching is _.A. computational linguistics  B. anthropological linguisticsC. mathematical linguistics    D. applied linguistics14. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _.A. primaryB

40、. correct C. secondaryD. stable15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which eve

41、ry native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above16. A historical study of language is a _ study of language.A. synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. comparative17. Saussure took a (n)_ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _ point of view.A. sociological,psych

42、ological B.psychological,sociologicalC. applied, pragmatic D. semantic and linguistic18. According to F. de Saussure, _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. parole    B. performanceC. langue    D. Language19. The de

43、tails of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _ , rather than by instinct.A. learning B. teaching C. books D. both A and BChapter 2- Phonetics發(fā)音/語音學Objectives (教學目的):To draw your attention to the areas of the phonetic study.To assist you to know more about the Int

44、ernational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)國際音標.To help familiarize you with the factors involved in describing English consonants and vowels.2.1 The phonic medium of language P141. What is the difference between “the phonic medium of language” and “the speech sounds”?The phonic medium of language refers to

45、the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication. 語言的聲音媒介The speech sounds refer to the individual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language.The phonic medium of language FamilyThe speech sounds Family members2. Why is speech considered more basic than writing?

46、Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages in the world.Historically, speech came into being much earlier than writing.Functionally, writing is invented to record speech.Individually, speech is acquired before writing.2.2 Phonetics

47、 P151. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics)Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, that is, all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. 2. Discuss the relationship between articulatory pho

48、netics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics in terms of the process of human linguistic communication. Organs of speech P15-171. What organs are involved in producing language?2. How are speech sounds produced? Human vocal tract 聲道is just like a (extremely flexible) m musical instrument! The h

49、uman vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped in many different ways to take on different resonating 產(chǎn)生共鳴的properties. The effect of this is to create the variety of different sounds in human speech. 3. The diagram of speech organs:1) Lips 2) Teeth3) Teeth ridge (alveolar) 齒齦4) Hard palate硬腭5)Soft palate

50、(velum) 軟腭6) Uvula'ju:vjul小舌7)Tip of tongue舌尖8)Blade of tongue舌面1. 9 Glottal.)Back of tongue舌背10)Vocal cords聲帶11)Pharyngeal cavity咽喉12)Nasal cavity 鼻腔 Orthographic representation正視表示法of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions寬式和嚴式轉(zhuǎn)寫P17-181. What are main principles of the International Phon

51、etic Alphabet (IPA)? There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound. The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.2. What is the difference between narrow transcription (嚴式轉(zhuǎn)寫) and broad transcription (寬式轉(zhuǎn)寫) ? 1) Broad transcription is regarded as ph

52、onemic transcription（音位轉(zhuǎn)寫）. It is widely used in textbooks and dictionaries. Examples: /stop/ /top/ /plein/2)Narrow transcription is regarded as phonetic transcription（語音轉(zhuǎn)寫）. It is used to distinguish small difference in speech production. Examples: pat vs. spat for "pot" vs. "spot&qu

53、ot; Narrow transcription = broad transcription + diacritics,da'krtk變音符號Broad transcriptionNarrow transcriptionlips/lps/lpsslip/slp/slppills/plz/pzspill/spl/sp1) Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics，e.g. clear l , pit 2) Narrow transcriptio

54、n - used by phonetician語言學者 for careful study, with diacritics，e.g. dark l , aspirated p Classification of English speech sounds P18-221.- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants 2. What is the difference between a consonant and a vowel?3、Classific

55、ation of consonants P19-20- English consonants may be classified according to three dimensions三維:1）The manner of articulation 2）The place of articulation3）Voicing1）The manner of articulation發(fā)音方法：stops/plosives 塞音 fricatives 擦音affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音nasals 鼻音 glides/semivowels 滑音 2）The place of art

56、iculation發(fā)音部位：bilabial雙唇音的 labiodental唇齒音的dental齒音的 alveolar齒齦音的palatal硬腭音的 velar軟顎音的glottal喉音的1.Bilabial 2. Labiodental 3.Dental or interdental4. Alveolar 5. Palatoalveolar 6.Palatal7. Velar 8.Uvular 9.Glottal 4. The description of English consonants:1、 What are the 5 major factors involved in desc

57、ribing vowels?1) The position of the tongue in the mouth 2) The openness of the mouth.3) The shape of the lips.4) The length of the vowel5) The tongue movementExamples: ei a diphthong 雙元音i: close front long/tense unrounded vowel (a monophthong單元音)2、Classification of vowels P20-22- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:1） Monophthongs or pure/single vowels2） Diphthongs or gliding vowels Front Vowe