新科學和技術(shù)以及創(chuàng)新在印度的發(fā)展

1、畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計）外文翻譯外文題目：New Science, Technology and Innovation Developments In India 出 處： Supporting Science & Technology Polices 作 者： PIKAY RICHARDSON 原文:AbstractThis paper reviews the science and technology policies of India and how these have fashioned Indias technology capability over the years. It

2、 shows that while India has achieved enormous strides in the area of science, technology and innovation, inappropriate policies in the past have hampered the development of an effective national innovation system. The paper concludes by drawing lessons for the development of an EU-wide science and t

3、echnology policy2. Trends in STI Developments in India2.2 Trends in Indias Science and Technology PolicyIt has long been recognized that investment in science and technology makes substantial contribution to economic growth in terms of higher growth rates of an economys total factor productivity (Ab

4、ramovitz, 1956, Denison 1962 and Solow, 1957, among others). In addition to direct returns, huge (positive) externalities have also been found to be associated with it (Abramovitz, 1989). Taking cognisance of the importance of technologys role in development, advanced countries nurture continuing de

5、velopment of science and technology and most developing countries adopt R&D policies in the early phases of their development. Science and Technology policy constitutes an integral part of a nations overall industrial policy (Barber and White, 1987). While the former shapes the pace and directio

6、n of technology development, the latter determines the nature of demand. This section reviews the evolution of Science and Technology policy in India since independence。Science and Technology policy of any nation is carved within the background of overall industrial policy. If anything, S&T poli

7、cy is supposed not only to give meaning to, but more importantly, to ensure achievement of the goals of industrial policy. It is therefore the thrust and direction of industrial policy that determines the tenets of any S&T policy, although it must be said that R&D may lead to results that ma

8、y also change the course of industrial policy. Even so, S&T policy has almost always been driven by the goals of industrial development policy. This section therefore describes the development strategy adopted by the government in the various phases of development and analyses the accompanying S

9、&T policy. Two strands of S&T policy have existed policies related to technology transfer from abroad through formal modes such as FDI, technology licensing and capital goods imports and domestic technology generation policies. Having realized that the pursuit of autarkic economic policies i

10、n much of the post-independence period to 1990 was a mistake, India undertook sweeping reforms as a way of speeding economic growth and achieving faster integration into the world economy. Part of these reforms has been the re-enactment of a science and technology policy more suited to the achieveme

11、nt of the goals of building a prosperous nation.3. Response to/Impact of Reforms3.2.2 Global R&D CentersHirwani and Jain (1999) have shown that although market-oriented activities were more important to MNEs in most of the 1990s, technology oriented activities are growing in importance. Hitherto

12、, MNEs had been emphasizing a strategy of customizing products for the Indian market and of obtaining cost-efficient manufacturing facilities in India. Increasingly, however, there has been a clear move towards obtaining access to high quality scientists, engineers and designers in India. Some R&

13、;D centers set up in India by some MNEs conduct contract research for the corporate laboratories outside India. Prior to 1991, the establishment of such R&D centers by MNEs was consciously lacking. Since India signed the GATT Agreement in 1993 and subsequently passed the Intellectual Property la

14、w in 1994, over 60 MNEs have set up R&D centers in technology intensive industries, mostly to take advantage of the strong pool of highly-trained engineers and scientists. Before 1991, there were only two such centers in the country.Apart from the setting up of new centers in India to take advan

15、tage of the liberalized atmosphere, the raison dêtre and mode of operation of existing centers have also been changing by the new market environment. Some companies have completely restructured their R&D centers in India, shifting the focus from developing products for Indian markets to mak

16、ing them centers of global excellence. Others have expanded their. operations and hired many Indian scientists and technologists. This is more evident in the areas of information and computer technology. Such centers conduct R&D for worldwide operations. The availability of high quality labor ha

17、s been a motivating factor in the establishment of centers by companies such as Astra, Unilever, GE and Software Development Centers of Texas Instruments, Oracle, Microsoft and others. Substantial R&D presence has also been established in the areas of pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.3.4 Commer

18、cial Orientation of Public Research OrganizationsIndia has a strong industrial research infrastructure, which was fostered in the early stages of its post-independence growth. While the supply-side was generouslysupported, the industrial research system, prior to liberalization, was mostly geared to

19、import substitution (Bowonder and Richardson, 2000). The publicly funded Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and other bodies tended to be isolated entities with little or no links to industry. In such a protected environment, there was no need to benchmark their activities to those

20、 of global players. Also their activities were only marginally focused on commercialization. The last decade has seen many of these laboratories become more commercially oriented. They have been directing their efforts towards international quality R&D. Two recent major policy thrusts have been

21、(a) an increase in the quest for patenting in Europe and the USA, as a means of engendering a strong desire to undertake R&D and to innovate and (b) an increase in the commercial orientation of industrial research, with a view to making these bodies less dependent on public budgetary support.3.6

22、 FDI Spill-overs and Technological CapabilityLiberalization policies and the response by both foreign and Indian companies alike have had many spillovers that are valuable for Indias technological capability. The growth of the software industry has had wide-ranging impact on the economy. The demand

23、for software imports and the setting up of foreign development centers have contributed to the rapid increase in compensation levels, estimated at an annual rate of 25% in the second half of the 1990s. Other benefits have included stock options and good employment opportunities, thereby slowing brai

24、n drain to some extent. Foreign participation has exposed Indian engineers and scientists to new technologies and made them more sensitive to the protection of intellectual property (software IP piracy was estimated to have risen from 59% to 61% between 1999 and 2000 ( Krishnan, 2001). Another facto

25、r has been the sharp increase in the output of degree- and diploma awarding institutions. The number of institutions offering formal degree-level education in engineering more than doubled between 1990 and 2000, from 339 to 776. Student intake capacity also doubled with 80% rise in the science/engin

26、eering places. Although venture capital organizations started to emerge in India in 1986, the growth of technology-based ventures did not catch up. In the last decade, however, there has been a substantial rise in IT-based venture capital. Nigam (2001) records that venture capital investments reache

27、d $350 million in 2000, as against a figure of less than $5 million in 1995. A large chunk of this amount (70%) was directed into the IT sector. Many new venture capital firms are being set up, either by Indian-based industrialists and young professionals or by Indians based overseas.Although recent

28、 studies (Chandrasekhar and Basavarajappa, 2001; Mehta and Sama, 2001) show that there has been little change in R&D intensity of Indian industry, there has been a clear shift toward increased product development and innovation (Krishnan and Prabha, 1999). This has been accompanied by increased

29、awareness of intellectual property (IP) rights and, by implication, the importance of patenting. According to the US Patent Office, of the ten India-based organizations which filed the largest number of US patents in the 1995-2000 period, three are Indian pharmaceutical companies. The CSIR has also

30、been filing patents in India and the US, all this result of new outward-looking policies.4. Science and Technology Policy in Relation to the Multilateral SystemIndia is a founder member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), w

31、hich came into effect on January 1 1995, after the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. India's participation is based on the need to ensure more stability and predictability in international trade with a view to achieving more trade and prosperity for itself and t

32、he other members of the WTO. The multilateral trading system administered by the WTO aims to bring about orderliness, transparency and predictability in global trade through reductions in tariffs, progressive removal of non-tariff barriers, elimination of trade-distorting measures and systems of val

33、ues to serve as guidelines for national legislation to bring about uniformity in laws and regulations everywhere.The establishment of the WTO has created a forum for continuous negotiations to reconcile differing and oftentimes conflicting interests of members. Although there is unanimity in the pro

34、visions of International Trade theory that free trade enhances global welfare, nationalism and differing goals as well as the appropriation of the benefits of trade lead to many disagreements and conflicts within the global trading system. Conflicts arise between developed and developing countries (

35、as a result of differing developmental needs and goals) and even between developed or developing country blocs. India strongly subscribes to the multilateral approach to trade relations and grants MFN treatment to all its trading partners, including even those, which are non-members of the WTO. With

36、in the WTO, India has committed itself to ensuring that the sectors in which developing countries hold a comparative advantage are adequately opened up to international trade and also that the special Differential Treatment Provisions for developing countries under various WTO Agreements are transla

37、ted into specific enforceable dispensations in order that developing countries are facilitated in their developmental efforts.5. The Future of Science and Technology Policy in IndiaIndia has achieved world-class excellence in a number of science-intensive sectors such as nuclear power, satellite com

38、munications and defense. Since nearly half of R&D spending is incurred in theses sectors, the Government has been concerned to enhance the spin-offs from these investments as well as encourage technology transfers between these research centers and between the centers and the wider industry. Ind

39、ia can also be described as truly scientifically-proficient in many other years.6. Summary and Implications for EU-wide S&T PolicyThe prosperity of any economy depends on the productivity of its economic assets. Many studies have shown the vital role technological innovation plays in engendering

40、 productivity growth and long-run economic growth, and in determining a nations standard of living. In a globalizing world economy, the link between innovative capacity and prosperity has grown ever tighter and a rapid rate of innovation is needed to drive productivity growth. Advanced countries are

41、 becoming increasingly labor-constrained. Maintaining economic growth will, therefore, demand a stepped-up rate of innovation, and perhaps, the importation of skilled labor from other countries, as has been witnessed in some countries in recent years. Economic development in developing countries wil

42、l in a similar vein depend on a more efficient use of resources as well as stepped-up innovation.Like other countries, India in its quest to achieve industrialization and improve the quality of life of its people, has fostered an Industrial and S&T policy since the early years of independence. A

43、lthough it has achieved much progress in the area of science and technology, a policy of isolationism and a failure to develop an appropriate mix of the determinants of an effective NIS, has meant that today, Indias performance is much lower than would have been the case otherwise. The poor performa

44、nce started in the late 1960s. In the protected regime that India went for, it could not build capacity to innovate and produce internationally competitive technologies. The process of liberalization that started in the 1980s and accelerated in the 1990s, however, put competitive pressures on Indian

45、 firms to modernize and upgrade their technologies. At the same time, many MNEs entered the Indian market via FDIs and technology investments. Several foreign owned and jointly-owned R&D centers have been established. Indian organizations and institutions have been encouraged to become more comm

46、ercial-orientated and outward looking. Other measures have included direct intervention in forging links between industry and universities and among firms, strengthening of existing infrastructure and the creation of new institutions that may have important ingredients in the innovation chain.譯文:新科學

47、和技術(shù)以及創(chuàng)新在印度的發(fā)展摘 要本文回顧了印度的相關(guān)科學和技術(shù)的政策，以及這些政策在過去的一些時期內(nèi)如何影響印度的科技能力。結(jié)果表示，印度在科技創(chuàng)新方面取得了一定的成就，以及在不恰當?shù)恼呦拢绾斡绊懹《鹊膭?chuàng)新體系的發(fā)展。該文章最后總結(jié)了歐盟地區(qū)國家科技發(fā)展的經(jīng)驗和教訓(xùn)。二、印度科學技術(shù)政策的趨勢2.2 印度的科學和技術(shù)政策趨勢人們早已認識到對科學和技術(shù)方面的投資，在一個經(jīng)濟體的全部的生產(chǎn)要素有較高的增長率的條件下，對經(jīng)濟的增長會產(chǎn)生巨大的貢獻。除了直接的回報外，與它有巨大的（積極地）相關(guān)聯(lián)也同樣被發(fā)現(xiàn)?？紤]到科學技術(shù)在發(fā)展中的重要性，發(fā)達國家很自然的持續(xù)地進行著科學和技術(shù)的發(fā)展，而大多數(shù)的發(fā)

48、展中國家在他們發(fā)展的早期階段則采取研發(fā)的策略?？茖W和技術(shù)的政策，組成整個國家的工業(yè)政策中不可分割的一部分。然而技術(shù)發(fā)展的步伐和方向的先前的形狀，決定了自然的需求。本節(jié)介紹了自獨立以來印度的科學和技術(shù)政策的演變。任何國家的科學和技術(shù)政策都會在整體工業(yè)政策的背景中體現(xiàn)出來。不管怎樣，科技政策都應(yīng)該不僅僅是被給出來，但更重要的是，以確保各項工業(yè)政策目標的實現(xiàn)。因此工業(yè)政策的推力以及方向的確定，決定了任何科學和技術(shù)政策的規(guī)定。盡管如此，但還是需要說明的是，研發(fā)也許會導(dǎo)致或許會改變工業(yè)政策的變化。因此，科學和技術(shù)幾乎一直都被工業(yè)發(fā)展政策的目標所驅(qū)趕著向前發(fā)展。因此，本節(jié)介紹了政府在不同的發(fā)展階段所采取的

49、各種不同的發(fā)展策略，以及分析了伴隨科學技術(shù)發(fā)展的政策。有兩個科學技術(shù)的標準關(guān)于從國外FDI的技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)移的相關(guān)政策，技術(shù)許可和資本商品進口和國內(nèi)技術(shù)通常政策。當認識到在1990年間大多數(shù)的后獨立的國家追求自給自足的經(jīng)濟政策是一個錯誤之后，印度開始著手大規(guī)模的改革，作為一種加速經(jīng)濟增長，進行最快的整合來融入到世界經(jīng)濟之中去的方法。部分的改革成為繁榮科學和技術(shù)的策略，使之更加適合去實現(xiàn)建設(shè)一個富強國家的目標。三、對改革的反應(yīng)或影響3.2 全球研發(fā)中心 Hirwani 和Janin (1999 年) 顯示雖然在 1990 年代的大部分以市場為導(dǎo)向的活動，更重要的是多國企業(yè)，技術(shù)導(dǎo)向型活動也變得日益重要。

50、到目前為止，多國企業(yè)已強調(diào)了一種針對印度市場和獲得成本高效的生產(chǎn)設(shè)施的自定義產(chǎn)品的戰(zhàn)略。更多的是，盡管如此，在印度有一個比較明顯的舉動，那就是去獲得高品質(zhì)的科學技術(shù)，工程師和設(shè)計師。由跨國公司在印度以外建立的一些研發(fā)中心與印度進行簽訂合同的研究。追溯到1991年，由跨國公司建立的這些研究中心極其的缺乏，自從在1993年印度簽訂了GATT協(xié)議以后，以及隨后在1994年通過的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法，超過60個的跨國公司在技術(shù)密集型的產(chǎn)業(yè)中建立了研發(fā)中心，充分的利用了訓(xùn)練有素的工程師和科學家，在1991年以前，在這個國家中，僅僅只有兩個這樣的研發(fā)中心。除了在印度設(shè)立新的中心，來充分利用印度的自由的氣氛以外，現(xiàn)有

51、的中心存在的理由和開辦的模式也被新的市場環(huán)境所改變。一些公司完全重組其在印度的研發(fā)中心，他們的注意力從為印度市場發(fā)展產(chǎn)品轉(zhuǎn)移到讓他們的研發(fā)中心變得全球卓越化。其他的已經(jīng)擴大了他們的業(yè)務(wù)，并且雇傭了許多的印度科學家和技術(shù)人員，在信息和電腦技術(shù)方面表現(xiàn)的更加明顯，因此，這些中心進行著全球化的研發(fā)活動。高素質(zhì)的勞動力成為了公司建立這些研發(fā)中心的激勵因素，例如阿斯特拉，聯(lián)合利華，通用電氣以及德州儀器軟件開發(fā)中心，甲骨文，微軟公司以及其他的公司，在制藥和生物研制方面，大量的研發(fā)中心被建立起來。3.4 公共研究組織的商業(yè)定位印度已經(jīng)有了較強的工業(yè)研發(fā)基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，這些設(shè)施是在其獨立后的生長初期所形成的。由于供

52、應(yīng)方面的大量支持，工業(yè)的研發(fā)系統(tǒng)，在自由化之前，主要是面向進口替代，科學與工業(yè)研究的公共資助委員會，以及其他的一些獨立的實體，與工業(yè)僅有一點或者沒有任何聯(lián)系。在這種被保護的環(huán)境下，也沒有必要去對全球玩家的行為設(shè)置相關(guān)的基準。同樣，他們的行為也只僅僅稍微集中在商業(yè)化。在過去的幾十年中，許多的實驗室向著商業(yè)取向發(fā)展，他們也將他們的努力轉(zhuǎn)向指導(dǎo)國際品質(zhì)的研究。兩個最近的政策的主旨在于，在歐洲和美國對尋求專利的增加。作為一種手段的兩性平等觀點，強烈要求去著手進行研發(fā)和創(chuàng)新，以及在商業(yè)導(dǎo)向下的工業(yè)研究的增加，使得缺乏獨立自主的實體企業(yè)減少對公共資助的依賴。3.6 外國直接投資技術(shù)溢出和技術(shù)容量自由化政策

53、，以及外國和印度公司的反應(yīng)有著許多技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)，這些技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)，對印度的技術(shù)接受能力有著相當大的價值。不斷增長軟件行業(yè)對經(jīng)濟的增長有著廣泛的影響。軟件進口的需求和外國研發(fā)中心的建立，對薪酬水平的迅速增長，起著巨大的作用，在20世紀90年代的后半期，年均增長率估計在25%。其他的獲益包括股票期權(quán)和較好的就業(yè)機會從而在某種程度上減緩了人才的外流。外國的參與，已將印度工程師和科學家推向了新的技術(shù)，并且使得他們對知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的保護變得更加敏感，因此，學位和文憑頒發(fā)機構(gòu)的輸出的急劇增長。許多的研究機構(gòu)在1990的339年到2000年的776，在工程方面提供超了出兩倍的正常學位層次的教育，學生在科學或者工程學位方面，也產(chǎn)生的了80%的增幅，吸收能力相當于以前的兩倍。雖然風險投資機構(gòu)開始在1986年出現(xiàn)在印度于，但是基于技術(shù)的風險者并沒有趕上來。在過去的幾十年，基于IT的風險資本卻有較大的增長。在2000年，風險資本投資達到了350000000美元。這筆款項的很大的一部，約占70%流入了IT行業(yè)，許多新