1-4單元《新編語言學教程》課后答案

1、Chapter 1Introduction1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.(1) linguistics語言學:the scienti?cor systematicstudy oflanguage.(2) language語言:a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的聲音 symbols used for human communication.用于人類交流的任意聲音 符號系統(3) arbitrariness 任意性:the absenceof similarity between the form of a linguistic

2、 signand what it relates to in reality, 語言符號的形式與現實的關系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality 雙重性:the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at anothe門evel.在一個層面上(語 言和字母)的無意義的語言元素結合在另一個層次上形 成有意義的單位(詞)(5) compe

3、tence語言能力:knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use作為一種形式抽象的語言 的語法知識，區(qū)別于實際語言使用的行為,i.e.performance.(6) performance 語言運用:Chomsky?s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge that underlies it, or competence.

4、喬姆斯基對實際語言行為的術 語不同于它的知識，或能力。(8) phatic communion 交際性談話:Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the heareM 言是用來建立一個氣 氛或保持說話人和聽話人之間的社會聯系(11) synchronic linguistic義時語言學:the study of language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in t

5、erms of how they have evolved over time.語言和語 言的研究，因為它們是在一個給定的時刻使用，而不是 他們如何隨著時間的推移演變(12) diachronic linguistics歷時語言學:the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment語言在時間上的變化與語言在特 定時刻使用的對比研究2. No, language is human-speci?c. Human language has

6、 seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs? or pigs? noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to t

7、he fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as"gou” , but "yilu ” in Japanese;wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course

8、, onomatopoetic words such as “quacuack" and a bang ,are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is bo

9、rn into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics desc

10、ribes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of thewritten language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it t

11、ries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics i

12、s descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic lin

13、guistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can te

14、ll a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man?s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of pr

15、oductivity also distinguisheshuman language from wolf ?s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language1. De?ne each of the following terms brie?y.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological pro

16、cess whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes +nasal when followed by a +nasal consonant.(3) consonant輔音:a speech sound produced by partial orcomplete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the air?ow and creating audible

17、friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.由于部分或全部聲道的部分關 閉所產生的聲音講話，從而阻礙空氣？OW和創(chuàng)造聲音的摩擦。輔音清濁的描述方面，發(fā)音部位和發(fā)音方式(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation 語調:the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and

18、rhythm to the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech音高和重音的變化，使節(jié)奏和節(jié)奏在普通語言中起到旋律的作用。(6) phoneme音位:the abstract element of a sound, identi?edas being distinctive in a particula門anguage.一個聲音的抽 象元素，并？為在一個特定的語言特色(7) phonetics語音學:the study of linguistic speechsounds, how they are produced, how they are per

19、ceived, and their physical properties.語言語音的研究，它們是如何 產生的，它們是如何被感知的，以及它們的物理性質。(8) phonology音位學:the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language 語言聲音背后的抽象 系統研究。(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing 音調：the vibration in the larynx caused by air from

20、the lungs passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.在通過聲帶時，部分封閉的肺部 的空氣引起的喉振動；語音說成是濁音或清音(11) voiceless青音：When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords an

21、d passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sound瑪聲帶分開， 來自肺部的氣流不受阻礙的空間，通過自由的聲帶。以這種方式產生 的聲音被形容為清音(12) vowel 元音:a speech sound produced without signi?cant constriction of the air ?owing through the oral cavity.無意義的？不能收縮由于在口腔的空氣 ？產生的 語音2. Minimal pair test or substitutio

22、n test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different wo

23、rds. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, ?ne/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables

24、 is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal

25、(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “ promise

26、 ” . We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable.consider(2) Syllable representations of the words:collide k2#laid elect i#lektk2n#sid2Chapter 3Morphology1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.(1) morphology 形態(tài)學：the study of the structure of words.詞 匯結構的研究(2) morph

27、eme 音位：the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves a grammatical function.具有 意義或提供語法功能的最小的語言單位(3) free morpheme 自 由詞素:a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.一個可以獨立作為一個詞的語素(4) bound morpheme粘著語素： a morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word, e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -e

28、r (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.(6) allomorph 同詞素的異形詞 ：a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es, and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.在其中個語素的語 音形式實現，如-,-,和EN都是語素(寫作)的復數語 素(7) d

29、erivation 派生詞：the formation of new words by adding af?xes to other words or morphemes in morphology andword formation.形成新的單詞加入 AF?xes其他詞或語素 構詞形態(tài)和(8) clipping 構詞法:the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllable have been cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.一個多音節(jié)的詞的部分被切斷，并縮短為較 短的形式的過

30、程.(9) acronym 首字母縮略詞 :words which are composed of the ?rst letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.單詞是由 一系列的單詞的第一字母和發(fā)音 ？單詞。例子：北約、雷 達和雅皮士(10) initialism 詞首字母縮略詞 :Some new words are composed of the ?rst letters of a series of words and pronounced

31、 by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism. 一些新單詞是由一系列的單詞的第一字 母和發(fā)音？他們說每一封信。這樣的詞叫做縮寫(11) blending 混成構詞法:A single new word can be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is ?nished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another w

32、ord. For example, brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.一個新單詞可以由兩個不同的形式組合而成.O通常情況下，混合？完成以只有一個單 詞的開始加入到另一個單詞的結尾。例如，早午餐的縮 短形式的早餐和午餐的形成(12) root 詞根:the morpheme that remains when all af?xes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.語素是當所有 AF?

33、物從復雜的詞了(13) stem 詞干:the base to which one or more af?xes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish.基地的一個或多個AF?XES連接創(chuàng)建一個更復 雜的形式，可能是另一個干或一個字(14) pre?x 前綴:Af?xes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which ca

34、se they are called pre?xesAF 刑可以加入到根或莖的開始，在這種情況下，他們被稱 為預？xes(15) suf?x 后綴:Af?xes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suf?xesAF?W可以力口入 到根或莖端，在這種情況下，他們被稱為后?xe2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: ?y tree suite(2) bound morphemeroot?y/?yreusere-usespiteful-fulspiteprepl

35、anpre-plandesks-sdesktriumphed-edtriumphsuite/suiteoptionality-alityoptionuntieun-tiedelightde-lightfastest-estfastprettier-ierprettytree/treejustly-lyjustdeformde-formmistreatmis-treatdislikedis-likepayment-mentpaydisobeydis-obeyprematurepre-mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modi?cation)Column I

36、I: suppletionColumn III: stress modi?cat ion(2) The process in the Column I is ?nished by changing the vowel of each word, while in Column II, the process is ?nished by changing vowel and consonant of each word. nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.(3) Column

37、 I:Column II:Column III:awake/awoke blow/blew lie/lay goose/geese bad/worsebear/borebite/bitknow/knew tooth/teeth are/werearise/arosehide/hidfoot/feetlouse/lice,combine/com?binemany/more,compress/com?press7,conduct/con?duct,insert/in?sert,insult/in?sult,intern/in?tern5.(1) Omitted.(2) Other examples

38、:,rerun (n.) re?run (v.) ,contrast (n.) con? trast (v.),convert (n.) con?vert (v.) ,desert (n.) -de?sert (v.),export (n.)ex? port (v.) ,increase (n.) in?cr ease (v.),conduct (n.) con?duct (v.) ,object (n.)ob?ject (v.),content (n.)consent (v.) ,protest (n.) pro? test (v.),insult (n.) in?sult (v.) ,pr

39、oduce (n.) pro ?duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, thestress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables.When all the words above are stressed on the ?rst syllables, they are6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ".(2) It means “the person who does ” .(3) The mo

40、rphological rule working here is " n. +-er-n” , and the last phoneme of the noun, whichthe suf?x -er is added to, should be a consonant.(4) The rule in (3) doesn?t work in the word discoverer because the last phonemeof discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) in?ection (2) derivation (3) in?ection (4)

41、in?ection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.(1) syntax語法:the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure!來指句子 結構和句子結構研究的術語.。(2) word class 詞類:a group of words which are similar in function; words which are grouped into word c

42、lasses according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms, etc. 一組在功能上相似的詞；根據單 詞與其他單詞的組合方式，將單詞分為詞類，如何改變 它們的形式等。(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set of rules for the 8 " proper " use of a language, that?s to say, it tries to lay down rules t

43、o tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with which linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should

44、 be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up intoits immediate constituents by using binary cutting untilobtaining its ultimate constituents. For example, the immediate constituents of“ The man bought a car " are theman and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man

45、 are the and man, and so on until no further cutscan be made. The ultimate constituents of“The man boughta car ” at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language through such methods

46、 as the use of “test frames ” .(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents, which can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues until no further divisions are possible. The ?rst division or units are known as immediate constituents.(

47、8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents, which can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues until no further divisio ns are possible. The ?nal division or units are known as ultimate constituents.(9) constituent structural grammar

48、: It refers to a grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea ofconstituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. (10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attemptsto de?ne and describe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences (without ungrammati

49、cal ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure to our experience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social roles and interacting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or

50、spoken texts which cohere within themselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major d

51、istinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggessomebody todo something ” , we usually use “ suggestause or asuggest doing ” , here we

52、?d subtetrtute “adviseforsuggest(4) The wordrequestis a transitive verb which should takean object directly, so the word"for ” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate " cannofddtewed by double objects as “ donatesomebody something ” . Instead we always use “ donate something to somebody ” .

53、(10) The subject of the verb“write " is usually a human; an“ article " cannot write itself. In this cheseatssive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don?t use" be bored of something/somebody ” , t“ be bored with something/somebody " whi

54、ch means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “ myselfis a re?exive pronoun, which can?t be used as subject, and it should be replaced by" I ” .(14) The word “surprise usually used as a transitive verb, so the expression - surprise for you ” is ungrammatical, and it can be replaced by“surprissomebody (with s