美國法律體系的特點

1、美國法律體系的特點美國成文法基本上是州一級的法律。除了民事訴訟課程是聯(lián)邦法，美國法學院第一年的課程幾乎都是州法律。陪審團制度是美國法律的一個特征，它是美國法不僅區(qū)別于大陸法系甚至區(qū)別于英國普通法。兩套平行的系統(tǒng)：州法院適用州法律，聯(lián)邦法院適用聯(lián)邦法律。州法院有權(quán)力適用州法律，包括州 憲法。所有聯(lián)邦法院都適用州法律。只有當案件上升到聯(lián)邦問題的程度，或考慮到某案涉及公民的異籍身份問題，聯(lián)邦法院才介入。美國法官走的是全方位路線，大陸法系法官走的是專業(yè)化路線。美國的司法審判中，實行當事人主義，法官不需要對爭議事實進行認證和裁決。美國法律系統(tǒng)的權(quán)力是分散的，它的運行依靠的是各個平等權(quán)力主體之間的相互協(xié)調(diào)

2、。上訴案件原則上都是法律審，很少涉及事實審美國法學院的教育以培養(yǎng)律師為目的案件記錄是美國法學院的授課內(nèi)容之一實用主義哲學影響深遠,現(xiàn)實精神和經(jīng)驗分析是美國法律思想的基本特征馬伯里訴麥迪遜案(1803)確立司法審查制度最高法院首次行使司法審查權(quán)并使國會一項法律無效 馬歇爾確立了由永久性的成文憲法支配臨時性的國會的基本原則 司法審查已經(jīng)成為我們憲法機器中絕對必要的部件，抽掉這一個特制的螺栓，這部機器就化為碎片。 羅伊訴韋德Opinion法官判決意見：The Supreme Court of the United States decided that states could regulate a

3、bortions only in certain circumstances but otherwise women did have a right to privacy and reproductive autonomy.美國聯(lián)邦最高法院判決婦女擁有自主隱私和決定生育的權(quán)利，州政府只有在特定情形下才可以立 法規(guī)范婦女墮胎問題。美國聯(lián)邦最高法院把婦女的孕期分為三個階段，確定了孕婦和州政府各自擁有 的權(quán)利。The Supreme Court of the United States decided that states could regulate abortions only in cer

4、tain circumstances but otherwise women did have a right to privacy and reproductive autonomy. The Court divided a womans pregnancy into three time periods: 1) during the first trimester (the first three months of pregnancy), states may not interfere with a womans decision to have an abortion; 2) dur

5、ing the second trimester, states could regulate abortions, but only if such regulation was reasonably related to the mothers health; and, 3) during the third trimester, which occurs after the fetus (unborn child) reaches viability (the stage at which it can survive outside the mothers body), states

6、may regulate absolutely and ban abortions altogether in order to protect the unborn child. The womans right to privacy was held to be a fundamental right which could only be denied if a compelling state interest existed. Once the fetus reaches a “viable” stage of development, such a compelling point

7、 is reached because the unborn child is now given constitutional protection.美國最高法院決定墮胎州可以調(diào)節(jié)只有在某些特殊的情況下，否則真的有一個婦女隱私權(quán)和生殖自治。 法院把一女人的懷孕分成三個時期:1)在第一學期懷孕的前三個月),國家會不會影響到一個女人的決定 流產(chǎn);(2 )在第二個三個月，州可以調(diào)節(jié)，但只有墮胎的規(guī)定合理的母親的健康相關(guān);3)在懷孕第三期間，它 出現(xiàn)在胎兒(生存)達到未出生的孩子的階段，在這個階段，它可以生存在母體外)，國家會調(diào)節(jié)，禁止墮胎 絕對完全為了保護未出生的孩子。女人的隱私權(quán)被認為是最基本的

8、權(quán)利，這只會被拒絕,如果一個令人 信服的國家利益的存在。一旦達到“可行的”胎兒的發(fā)展階段,這樣一個令人信服的觀點是達到因為未出 生的孩子將是憲法保障。The woman s right to privacy was held to be a fundamental right which could only be denied if a compelling state interest existed. Once the fetus reaches a “viable” stage of development, such a compelling point is reached bec

9、ause the unborn child is now given constitutional protection.自由墮胎權(quán)是根本權(quán)利，除非涉及特別重大的社會公益，否則州政府不能隨意加以干涉。一旦 胎兒擁有了生存能力也就意味著涉及特別重大的社會公益的條件達到了，因為未出生的嬰兒應(yīng)具有受 到憲法保護的特權(quán)?！捌降缺Ｗo”(equal protection of law )美國最高法院發(fā)展出三種司法審查標準以決定某法律或某政府行為是否剝奪人民之法律平等保護的權(quán)利。(p152 4nd para - p153 2nd para)Suspect Classification involved f

10、Strict Scrutiny Test 嫌疑族群-嚴格審查標準對于侵害人民之基本權(quán)利或影響“嫌疑族群” suspect class人民(有色人種，也就是基于種族、 血統(tǒng)或國籍的分類)的法律或政府行為的分類，美國最高法院采取“嚴格審查標準” strict scrutiny并 規(guī)定必須有超越保護公民個人利益之政府利益為分類的正當理由，Quasi-suspect Classification involved f Intermediate Scrutiny Test半嫌疑族群-中級審查標準(性別歧視歸類)The gov t must prove “ exceedingly persuasive j

11、ustification.對于以性別和非婚生子女作為標準區(qū)分的法律或政府行為的半嫌疑族群的分類，美國最高法院適 用“中級審查標準” middle-level scrutiny,并規(guī)定以性別區(qū)分的分類須與政府的重大利益有密切關(guān)聯(lián)， 政府須承擔證明責任；Non-suspect Classification involved, i.e. neither suspected class nor quasi-suspected class is involved f Lax Scrutiny Rational Basis Test非嫌疑族群-寬松審查標準/合理根據(jù)審查標準(經(jīng)濟歸類)對于與商業(yè)、經(jīng)濟或福

12、利事務(wù)有關(guān)，但不侵害某個種族或某項人民基本權(quán)利的法律或政府行為的 非嫌疑族群分類，美國最高法院適用“寬松審查標準” lax scrutiny - reasonable basis analysis/rational basis test，且規(guī)定該法律或該政府行為的分類須有合理的根據(jù).檢視嫌疑族群分類first determining whether its members are readily identifiable, distinct, and separate from the majority of citizens, it may qualify as a suspect clas

13、s.首先判定其成員是否十分易于辨認，特點突出，有別于公眾中 的大多數(shù)的，如果是，這個群體便構(gòu)成嫌疑族群。Second, the Court ascertains if there has been a history of past discrimination against the group.第二，最 高法院須查明歷史上是否已經(jīng)存在針對該部分人實施的歧視。Finally, the Court looks at the relative political power of the group.最后，最高法院會分析這個群體具有 的政治力量。正當程序原意為“實施法律的正當程序”，即程序性正當

14、程序；美國聯(lián)邦最高法院通過一系列重大 判例和對第十四條憲法修正案的靈活解釋將這項程序性規(guī)則變成為一項實質(zhì)性規(guī)則，即對立法權(quán)所要 達到的目的的“合理性”進行審查，“最高法院顯然逾越了其正當?shù)乃痉毮埽①栽搅艘恍┫鄬τ诹?法權(quán)的權(quán)力”。這種僭越使正當法律程序原則獲得了極強的生命力并帶來了 “正當法律程序的統(tǒng)治”。就刑事案件而言，程序性正當法律程序保障被告人至少享有如下程序性權(quán)利：通知指控罪名的權(quán)利；right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation;涉及到訴訟開始文書及其他訴訟文書的送達service of pleadin

15、gs or process受審的權(quán)利；正當法律程序right to have jury trial - pretrial publicityright to a speedy and public trial 獲得快速及公開審判的權(quán)利due process of law亦不得未經(jīng)正當法律程序剝奪任何人的生命、自由或財產(chǎn)。(暗含：證明必須排除合理懷疑的權(quán)利reasonable doubt)由辯護律師辯護的權(quán)利；right to counsel對指控罪名答辯的權(quán)利；rigth to defense himself against the accusation.與指控人和證人當面對質(zhì)與辯論的權(quán)利；獲

16、得對質(zhì)問權(quán)right to confront opposing witnesses拒絕自認犯罪的權(quán)利；“不自證己罪/不得自我歸罪” Privilege against self-incrimination 5# Amd出示被告人證人的權(quán)利；要求法院以強制手段促使有利于被告的證人出庭作證的權(quán)利right to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor無罪推定的權(quán)利，即被告人被視為無罪，除非法庭在審判期間根據(jù)實質(zhì)證據(jù)證明被告人有罪；獲得判決書的權(quán)利；right to have award or sentence.上訴的

17、權(quán)利。Right to appeal序言我們美利堅合眾國的人民，為了組織一個更完善的聯(lián)邦，樹立正義，保障國內(nèi)的安寧，建立共同 的國防，增進全民福利和確保我們自己及我們彳爰代能安享自由帶來的幸福，乃為美利堅合眾國制定和 確立這一部憲法。PreambleWe the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general

18、welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.第一條 第一款本憲法所規(guī)定的立法權(quán)，全屬合眾國的國會，國會由一個參議院和一個眾議院組成。第二款 眾議院應(yīng)由各州人民每兩年選舉一次之議員組成，各州選舉人應(yīng)具有該州州議會中人數(shù)最 多之一院的選舉人所需之資格。凡年齡未滿二十五歲，或取得合眾國公民資格未滿七年，或於某州當 選而并非該州居民者，均不得任眾

19、議員。眾議員人數(shù)及直接稅稅額，應(yīng)按聯(lián)邦所轄各州的人口數(shù)目比 例分配，此項人口數(shù)目的計算法，應(yīng)在全體自由人民一一包括訂有契約的短期仆役，但不包括末被課 稅的印第安人一一數(shù)目之外，再加上所有其他人口之五分之三。實際人口調(diào)查，應(yīng)於合眾國國會第一 次會議彳爰三年內(nèi)舉行，并於其彳爰每十年舉行一次，其調(diào)查方法另以法律規(guī)定之。眾議員的數(shù)目，不得 超過每三萬人口有眾議員一人，但每州至少應(yīng)有眾議員一人；在舉行人口調(diào)查以前，各州得按照下列 數(shù)目選舉眾議員：新罕布什爾三人、麻薩諸塞八人、羅德島及普羅維登斯墾殖區(qū)一人、康涅狄格五人、 紐約州六人.新澤西四人、賓夕法尼亞八人、特拉華一人、馬里蘭六人、弗吉尼亞十人、北卡羅

20、來納 五人、南卡羅來納五人、喬治亞三人。任何一州的眾議員有缺額時，該州的行政長官應(yīng)頒選舉令，選 出眾議員以補充缺額。眾議院應(yīng)選舉該除議長及其他官員；只有眾議院具有提出彈劾案的權(quán)力。第三款合眾國的參議院由每州的州議會選舉兩名參議員組成之，參議員的任期為六年，每名參議 員有一票表決權(quán)。參議員於第一次選舉彳爰舉行會議之時，應(yīng)當立即盡量均等地分成三組。第一組參議 員的任期，到第二年年終時屆滿，第二組到第四年年終時屆滿，第三組到第六年年終時屆滿，俾使每 兩年有三分之一的參議員改選；如果在某州州議會休會期間，有參議員因辭職或其它原因出缺，該州 的行政長官得任命臨時參議員，等到州議會下次集會時，再予選舉補缺

21、。凡年齡未滿三十歲，或取得 合眾國公民資格未滿九年，或於某州當選而并非該州居民者，均不得任參議員。合眾國副總統(tǒng)應(yīng)為參 議院議長，除非在投票票數(shù)相等時，議長無投票權(quán)。參議院應(yīng)選舉該院的其他官員，在副總統(tǒng)缺席或 執(zhí)行合眾國總統(tǒng)職務(wù)時，還應(yīng)選舉臨時議長。所有彈劾案，只有參議院有權(quán)審理。在開庭審理彈劾案 時，參議員們均應(yīng)宣誓或誓愿。如受審者為合眾國總統(tǒng)，則應(yīng)由最高法院首席大法官擔任主席；在末 得出席的參議員的三分之二的同意時，任何人不得被判有罪。彈劾案的判決，不得超過免職及取消其 擔任合眾國政府任何有榮譽、有責任或有俸給的職位之資格；但被判處者仍須服從另據(jù)法律所作之控 訴、審訊、判決及懲罰。第四款 各

22、州州議會應(yīng)規(guī)定本州參議員及眾議員之選舉時間、地點及程序；但國會得隨時以法律 制定或變更此種規(guī)定，惟有選舉議員的地點不在此例。國會應(yīng)至少每年集會一次，開會日期應(yīng)為十二 月的第一個星期一，除非他們通過法律來指定另一個日期。第五款參眾兩院應(yīng)各自審查本院的選舉、選舉結(jié)果報告和本院議員的資格，每院議員過半數(shù)即構(gòu) 成可以議事的法定人數(shù)；不足法定人數(shù)時，可以一天推一天地延期開會，并有權(quán)依照各該議院所規(guī)定 的程序和罰則，強迫缺席的議員出席。參眾兩院得各自規(guī)定本院的議事規(guī)則，處罰本院擾亂秩序的議 員，并且得以三分之二的同意，開除本院的議員。參眾兩院應(yīng)各自保存一份議事記錄，并經(jīng)常公布， 惟各該院認為應(yīng)保守秘密之部

23、分除外；兩院議員對於每一問題之贊成或反對，如有五分之一出席議員 請求，則應(yīng)記載於議事記錄內(nèi)。在國會開會期間，任一議院未得別院同意，不得休會三日以上，亦不 得遷往非兩院開會的其他地點。第六款 參議員與眾議員得因其服務(wù)而獲報酬，報酬的多寡由法律定之，并由合眾國國庫支付。兩 院議員除犯叛國罪、重罪以及擾亂治安罪外，在出席各該院會議及往返各該院途中，有不受逮捕之特 權(quán)；兩院議員在議院內(nèi)所發(fā)表之演說及辯論，在其它場合不受質(zhì)詢。參議員或眾議員不得在其當選任 期內(nèi)擔任合眾國政府任何新添設(shè)的職位，或在其任期內(nèi)支取因新職位而增添的俸給；在合眾國政府供 職的人，不得在其任職期間擔任國會議員。第七款有關(guān)徵稅的所有法

24、案應(yīng)在眾議院中提出；但參議院得以處理其它法案的方式，以修正案 提出建議或表示同意。經(jīng)眾議院和參議院通過的法案，在正式成為法律之前，須呈送合眾國總統(tǒng)；總 統(tǒng)如批準，便須簽署，如不批準，即應(yīng)連同他的異議把它退還給原來提出該案的議院，該議院應(yīng)將異 議詳細記入議事記錄，然彳爰進行復議。倘若在復議之彳爰，該議院議員的三分之二仍然同意通過該法案， 該院即應(yīng)將該法案連同異議書送交另一院，由其同樣予以復議，若此另一院亦以三分之二的多數(shù)通過， 該法案即成為法律。但遇有這樣的情形時，兩院的表決均應(yīng)以贊同或反對來定，而贊同和反對該法案 的議員的姓名，均應(yīng)由兩院分別記載於各該院的議事記錄之內(nèi)。如總統(tǒng)接到法案彳爰十日之

25、內(nèi)（星期 日除外），不將之退還，該法案即等於曾由總統(tǒng)簽署一樣，成為法律.準有當國會休會因而無法將該 法案退還時，該法案才不得成為法律。任何命令、決議或表決（有關(guān)休會問題者除外），凡須由參議 院及眾議院予以同意者，均應(yīng)呈送合眾國總統(tǒng)；經(jīng)其此準之彳爰，方始生效，如總統(tǒng)不予批準，則參眾 兩院可依照對於通過法案所規(guī)定的各種規(guī)則和限制，各以三分之二的多數(shù)，再行通過。第八款國會有權(quán)規(guī)定并徵收稅金、捐稅、關(guān)稅和其它賦稅，用以償付國債并為合眾國的共同防御 和全民福利提供經(jīng)費；但是各種捐稅、關(guān)稅和其它賦稅，在合眾國內(nèi)應(yīng)劃一徵收；以合眾國的信用 舉債；管理與外國的、州與州間的，以及對印第安部落的貿(mào)易；制定在合眾國

26、內(nèi)一致適用的歸化條 例，和有關(guān)破產(chǎn)的一致適用的法律；鑄造貨幣，調(diào)議其價值，并厘定外幣價值，以及制定度量衡的標 準；制定對偽造合眾國證券和貨幣的懲罰條例；設(shè)立郵政局及延造驛路；為促進科學和實用技藝的 進步，對作家和發(fā)明家的著作和發(fā)明，在一定期限內(nèi)給予專利權(quán)的保障；設(shè)置最高法院以下的各級法 院；界定并懲罰海盜罪、在公海所犯的重罪和違背國際公法的罪行；宣戰(zhàn)，對民用船蘋頒發(fā)捕押敵船 及采取報復行動的特許證，制定在陸地和海面虜獲戰(zhàn)利晶的規(guī)則；募集和維持陸軍，但每次撥充該項 費用的款項，其有效期不得超過兩年；配備和保持海軍；制定有開管理和控制陸海軍隊的各種條例； 制定召集民兵的條例，以便執(zhí)行聯(lián)邦法律，鎮(zhèn)壓

27、叛亂和擊退侵略；規(guī)定民兵的組織、裝備和訓練，以 及民兵為合眾國服務(wù)時的管理辦法，但各州保留其軍官任命權(quán)，和依照國會規(guī)定的條例訓練其民團的 權(quán)力；對於由某州讓與而由國會承受，用以充當合眾國政府所在地的地區(qū)（不逾十哩見方），握有對 其一切事務(wù)的全部立法權(quán)；對於經(jīng)州議會同意，向州政府購得，用以建筑要塞、彈藥庫、兵工廠、船 塢和其它必要建筑物的地方，也握有同樣的權(quán)力；一一并且為了行使上述各項權(quán)力，以及行使本憲法 賦予合眾國政府或其各部門或其官員的種種權(quán)力，制定一切必要的和適當?shù)姆?。第九款對於現(xiàn)有任何一州所認為的應(yīng)準其移民或入境的人，在一八O八年以前，國會不得加以 禁止，但可以對入境者課稅，惟以每人不

28、超過十美元為限。不得中止人身保護令所保障的特權(quán)，惟在 叛亂或受到侵犯的情況下，出於公共安全的必要時不在此限。不得通過任何褫奪公權(quán)的法案或者追溯 既往的法律。除非按本憲法所規(guī)定的人口調(diào)查或統(tǒng)計之比例，不得徵收任何人口稅或其它直接稅。對 各州輸出之貨物，不得課稅。任何有關(guān)商務(wù)或納稅的條例，均不得賦予某一州的港口以優(yōu)惠待遇；亦 不得強迫任何開往或來自某一州的船蘋，駛?cè)牖蝰偝隽硪恢?，或向另一州納稅。除了依照法律的規(guī)定 撥款之外，不得自國庫中提出任何款項；一切公款收支的報告和帳目，應(yīng)經(jīng)常公布。合眾國不得頒發(fā) 任何貴族爵位：凡是在合眾國政府擔任有俸給或有責任之職務(wù)者，末經(jīng)國會許可，不得接受任何國王、 王子

29、或外國的任何禮物、薪酬、職務(wù)或爵位。第十款 各州不得締結(jié)任何條約、結(jié)盟或組織邦聯(lián)；不得對民用船蘋頒發(fā)捕押敵船及采取報復行 動之特許證；不得鑄造貨幣；不得發(fā)行紙幣；不得指定金銀幣以外的物品作為償還債務(wù)的法定貨 幣；不得通過任何褫奪公權(quán)的法案、追溯既往的法律和損害契約義務(wù)的法律；也不得頒發(fā)任何貴族 爵位。未經(jīng)國會同意，各州不得對進口貨物或出口貨物徵收任何稅款，但為了執(zhí)行該州的檢查法律而 有絕對的必要時，不在此限；任何州對於進出口貨物所徵的稅，其凈收益應(yīng)歸合眾國國庫使用；所 有這一類的檢查法律，國會對之有修正和監(jiān)督之權(quán)。未經(jīng)國會同意，各州不得徵收船舶噸位稅，不得 在和平時期保持軍隊和軍艦，不得和另外

30、一州或國締結(jié)任何協(xié)定或契約，除非實際遭受入侵，或者遇 到刻不容緩的危急情形時，不得從事戰(zhàn)爭。Article I Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every

31、second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven ye

32、ars a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall b

33、e determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States,

34、and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative； and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall b

35、e entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.When vacancies happen in the Repres

36、entation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers； and shall have the sole power of impeachment.Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two S

37、enators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class

38、shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year； and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the

39、legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and

40、who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in

41、 the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Ju

42、stice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United State

43、s: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Con

44、gress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.Section 5. Each House shall b

45、e the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties a

46、s each House may provide.Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may

47、in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three da

48、ys, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and

49、breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.No Senator or Representative shall, during the

50、time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House d

51、uring his continuance in office.Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a l

52、aw, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsider

53、ation two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be det

54、ermined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law,

55、 in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall b

56、e presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.Section

57、 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow money on the credit of t

58、he United States; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreig

59、n coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; To establish post offices and post roads; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inven

60、tors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make