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1、血栓形成機(jī)理及溶血栓藥物的研究進(jìn)展講解:張榮春主要內(nèi)容一、血液二、凝血機(jī)制三、血栓及其形成機(jī)理四、溶血栓藥物及其發(fā)展五、News六、外文文獻(xiàn)一、血液血液是流動在心臟和血管內(nèi)的不透明紅色液體,主要成分為血漿、血細(xì)胞。屬于結(jié)締組織。血液中含有各種營養(yǎng)成分,如無機(jī)鹽、氧、以及細(xì)胞代謝產(chǎn)物、激素、酶和抗體等,有營養(yǎng)組織、調(diào)節(jié)器官活動和防御有害物質(zhì)的作用。二、凝血機(jī)制2.1 凝血(Blood Coagulation)凝血:血液凝固,是指血液由流動的液體狀態(tài)變成不能流動的凝膠狀態(tài)的過程,是生理性止血的重要環(huán)節(jié)。血液凝固的實(shí)質(zhì)就是血漿中的可溶性纖維蛋白原變成不可溶的纖維蛋白的過程。 2.2 凝血途徑三、血栓
2、及其形成機(jī)理3.1 血栓(thrombus ) 活動物機(jī)體在心臟或血管內(nèi)某一部分因血液成分發(fā)生析出、凝集和凝固所形成的固體狀物質(zhì)。 3.2 血栓的形成(thrombosis) 在活體的心臟或血管腔內(nèi),血液發(fā)生凝固或血液中的某些有形成分互相粘集,形成固體質(zhì)塊的過程,稱為血栓形成。3.3 機(jī)體的溶纖系統(tǒng) 在哺乳動物血液中存在一個(gè)溶纖系統(tǒng),它擔(dān)當(dāng)溶解血栓的作用。在纖溶酶原激活劑(PA)的作用下,纖溶酶原(Pg)轉(zhuǎn)變成纖溶酶(Pm),后者將血凝塊上不溶性纖維蛋白降解為可溶性產(chǎn)物,從而使血栓溶解。 血液中有兩種PA,一種來自血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的組織型纖溶酶原激活劑(t- PA),另一種是由腎細(xì)胞分泌的單鏈尿激
3、酶激活劑(scu- PA)。 在正常情況下,血液中只存在少量PA,生成微量Pm,而纖溶酶原激活劑- 1(PAI- 1)和2- 抗纖溶酶原(2- AP)這兩種抑制劑占優(yōu)勢,并保持該系統(tǒng)的平衡。 當(dāng)機(jī)體出血時(shí),通過形成纖維蛋白完成止血過程。但是,如果纖維蛋白長期存在于血管內(nèi),就會引起血管內(nèi)腔狹窄、閉塞和末梢功能障礙,發(fā)生血栓性疾病。3.3 影響血栓形成的因素3.3.1 血管壁的改變: 損傷的血管內(nèi)膜粗糙不平,使血小板易于粘集,同時(shí),內(nèi)摸損傷使內(nèi)皮下的膠原纖維暴露,后者可激活血中的因子,并進(jìn)而激活內(nèi)源性凝血系統(tǒng);損傷的內(nèi)膜所釋放的組織凝血因子又可激活外源性凝血系統(tǒng),引起血液凝固促使血栓形成。3.3.
4、2 血流速度的改變: 血流速度的改變包括血流緩慢、漩渦形成和血流停止等。由于在正常情況下,血液中的有形成分在血流中軸流動,與血管壁之間隔著一層血漿。當(dāng)血流緩慢時(shí),此種軸流消失,血小板逐漸析出從而進(jìn)入邊流并同損傷的內(nèi)膜接觸而發(fā)生粘集;同時(shí),粘集的血小板及局部形成的一些凝血因子,也因血流緩慢不易被稀釋和沖走,這些都有利于血栓形成。因此,血栓常發(fā)生在血流緩慢的靜脈中。血流中的渦流在血栓形成中也有重要意義。血液中的渦流能促使血小板從血流中分離、沉淀和粘集而逐漸形成血栓。3.3.3 血小板的改變: 許多實(shí)驗(yàn)證明血小板在血栓形成中起重要作用,血小板的數(shù)量、釋放的物質(zhì)等都與血栓形成有關(guān),如血小板數(shù)量超過10
5、0萬/mm3 形成血栓的可能性大大增加;幼稚的血小板粘附,聚集的能力強(qiáng)于成熟的血小板。3.3.4 促凝物質(zhì)的影響: 促凝物質(zhì)進(jìn)入血液使血液出現(xiàn)凝固性增高的病理狀態(tài)促進(jìn)血栓的形成。3.3.5 血液流速的改變 血液在流速低時(shí),粘度增高,血粘度的增高又會引起紅細(xì)胞變形性降低和聚集性增高,使粘度進(jìn)一步增高,使血流進(jìn)一步變慢,這樣有利于血小板的粘附和聚集。3.3.6 其他因素: 在生理或病理情況下,使血液中凝血因子增多或抗凝功能減弱,纖維蛋白溶解系統(tǒng)功能受到抑制,以及血液中脂肪酸過高都會使血栓更易發(fā)生。四、血栓治療血栓栓塞性疾?。河裳ㄔ斐赡程幑艿篱]塞所導(dǎo)致的一切病變。隨著人類壽命的延長,血栓栓塞性病變
6、也在明顯增加,因而近年來血栓栓塞癥及其治療方法受到了人們的廣泛關(guān)注。臨床療法共有3種,即外科手術(shù)、抗栓療法和溶栓療法。前2種療法均有較大缺陷,目前研究的重點(diǎn)主要在于溶栓療法和血栓溶酶的研究。 4.1 抗栓療法4.1.1 抗栓藥物 : 預(yù)防血小板聚集(抗血小板聚集劑); 抑制凝血過程(抗凝劑); 清除循環(huán)中的纖維蛋白原(去纖維蛋白制劑) 使用的藥物有肝素(Heparinum)、噻氯匹定(tidopidine)、氯吡格雷(clopidogrel)、利多格雷(ridogrel)、西卡前列素(cicaprost)、蛋白質(zhì)C(PC)、抗凝血酶(AT),水蛭素(hirudin)及其衍生物(hirulog,
7、hirugen)等 水蛭素:水蛭始載于神農(nóng)本草經(jīng)Hzycraft于1884年首先發(fā)現(xiàn)醫(yī)用水蛭的提取物中含有抗凝血的物質(zhì)1957年 Markwardt 從醫(yī)用水蛭中成功地分離出這種抗凝物質(zhì)的純品,并定名為水蛭素。水蛭素是凝血酶的直接抑制劑,它與凝血酶的活性中心的可識別位點(diǎn)牢固結(jié)合,并且結(jié)合區(qū)域大大超過活性中心,兩者緊密接觸,形成高度穩(wěn)定的非共價(jià)復(fù)合體,使其不能與血纖維蛋白原結(jié)合,從而抑制凝血酶的活性,因此具有抗凝、抗血栓等藥理作用。hirulog和hirugen是從水蛭素結(jié)構(gòu)衍化而來的,它們的藥理活性及作用與天然水蛭素基本相同。缺陷:療效低,副作用明顯,需要定期進(jìn)行血液學(xué)檢測或需長期治療,口服一
8、般無效等。目前臨床上比較合理的抗血栓治療方法為抗凝劑與抗血小板藥物聯(lián)合運(yùn)用,能抑制血小板活化和血纖維蛋白形成,對病人已形成的血栓難以直接溶解,故主要用于預(yù)防。 溶栓療法 溶栓療法是使已形成的血栓直接溶解的唯一療法,即利用溶栓劑直接溶解血栓或通過激活血液中的血纖維蛋白溶酶原轉(zhuǎn)化成血纖維蛋白溶酶來催化血栓的主要基質(zhì)血纖維蛋白水解。在過去的10年中,用溶栓劑治療冠狀動脈疾病、肺栓塞、血栓性心臟病的比例有所增加,其中對急性心肌梗死(AMI )、腦梗死的治療最為成功。臨床統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果證明,用鏈激酶或組織血纖維蛋白溶酶原激活劑使AMI的再灌注百分比從13%21%提高到60%90%。臨床上已正式批準(zhǔn)使用的溶栓劑
9、有:鏈激酶,尿激酶,重組組織血纖維蛋白溶酶原激活劑,對甲氧苯甲酰纖溶酶原鏈激酶激活合劑復(fù)合物等。 血栓溶酶研究進(jìn)展 最初使用的血栓溶酶是鏈激酶和尿激酶 鏈激酶(Streptokinase,簡稱SK)是從溶血性鏈球菌培養(yǎng)液中分離提取出的一種非酶糖蛋白,單鏈,分子量47 00050 000。Tillet和Gavner于1943年首次發(fā)現(xiàn)SK具有溶栓作用,并于1955年將其用于臨床。SK本身無酶活性,它不直接激活血纖維蛋白溶酶原,而是首先以11的分子比與血纖維蛋白溶酶原前激活物形成復(fù)合物,此復(fù)合物使血纖維蛋白溶酶原構(gòu)象發(fā)生變化,成為有活性的復(fù)合物,再催化血纖維蛋白溶酶原轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)檠w維蛋白溶酶,引起血栓
10、內(nèi)部的崩解和血栓表面的溶解。 優(yōu)點(diǎn):有效、其冠脈開通率為50缺點(diǎn):抗原性強(qiáng)、易引起變態(tài)反應(yīng),還可能出現(xiàn)低血壓,即副作用過大、禁忌癥多、連續(xù)用藥不可超過7 d。尿激酶(Urokinase,簡稱UK)是從人尿或腎組織培養(yǎng)物中提取出來的一種絲氨酸類蛋白水解酶。 1951年Willams發(fā)現(xiàn)的存在于哺乳動物尿中激活血纖維蛋白溶酶原的水解酶。1961年,Hansen最先將UK應(yīng)用于臨床。1965年,日本將其制成UK制劑。我國的上海生物化學(xué)制藥廠于1990年正式獲準(zhǔn)生產(chǎn)UK制劑。 UK在新鮮的尿中主要有兩種類型:雙鏈大分子UK(HMWUK),分子量為54 000D;單鏈小分子UK(LMWUK),分子量為3
11、3 000D。HMWUK系天然存在形式,而LMWUK為前者的自發(fā)降解產(chǎn)物或被同時(shí)存在的蛋白水解酶降解HMWUK后產(chǎn)生,它直接激活血纖維蛋白酶原而提高對血纖維蛋白的溶解能力,從而達(dá)到溶解血栓的目的。優(yōu)點(diǎn):無抗原性,無熱原性,可連續(xù)用藥半個(gè)月以上。缺點(diǎn):選擇性差,治療的同時(shí)會降解血纖維蛋白原。廣東藥學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)(ACAD J GCP) 2000,16(4)第4期 杜冰等:血栓溶酶研究進(jìn)展SK和UK這兩種藥物在體內(nèi)的半衰期短,只有320 min,要使其達(dá)到應(yīng)有的療效,必須大劑量長期用藥,容易產(chǎn)生全身性出血的傾向。針對UK半衰期短的特點(diǎn),1991年日本有人提出利用尿激酶淀粉結(jié)合物改善單獨(dú)使用尿激酶的各種缺
12、點(diǎn)并能充分且持續(xù)的發(fā)揮尿激酶的活性。為了克服SK的缺點(diǎn),1986年,英國Beccham公司成功研制了一種新的溶解血栓藥Eminase(茴香?;睦w溶酶原鏈激酶活化復(fù)合劑)。優(yōu)點(diǎn):在45 min內(nèi)一次性靜脈給藥(SK、UK則需要灌注數(shù)小時(shí)),不但給藥途徑快速方便,而且溶栓作用持久,不需要反復(fù)注射。 SK的換代產(chǎn)品還有APSAC(acylated plasminogen streptokinase activator complex)。其商品名是anistreplase,分子量為2.1710-22 kg(131 kD),它的形成是通過SK纖溶酶原復(fù)合物的活性中心絲氨酸上引入一個(gè)可逆的酰基基團(tuán),暫時(shí)
13、封閉活性中心,但不影響與血纖維蛋白的結(jié)合。APSAC在體內(nèi)無溶栓活性,進(jìn)入血液后,能與血纖維蛋白結(jié)合,并發(fā)生脫?;夥磻?yīng),形成有活性的SK纖溶酶原復(fù)合物,激活血纖維蛋白溶酶原。優(yōu)點(diǎn):半衰期長達(dá)105 min,給藥時(shí)間短,只需 min,并具有與纖維蛋白結(jié)合的能力。缺點(diǎn):非特異性,具有抗原性,易發(fā)生變態(tài)反應(yīng),還可引起低血壓。AT是血漿中最重要的抗凝血酶,它能和已激活的凝血酶結(jié)合并使其滅活。肝素在血液凝固的三個(gè)階段均發(fā)揮抗凝血作用。UK主要清除已形成的血栓。還有報(bào)道采用UK和透明質(zhì)酸酶合劑來治療血栓栓塞癥,透明質(zhì)酸酶本身的擴(kuò)散作用可以增加血流量,能大大增加UK療效。但上述這些藥多為靜脈注射或點(diǎn)滴使
14、用,所以藥劑要求高純度,導(dǎo)致價(jià)格昂貴,而且并未克服UK和SK產(chǎn)生的全身性出血的傾向。 1963年,Heid從馬來西亞產(chǎn)紅口腹蛇毒中提純出一種抗凝物質(zhì)安克洛酶,治療血栓栓塞性疾病效果很好。此后,各國學(xué)者對此進(jìn)行了深入的基礎(chǔ)理論研究,并探討用于治療各種血栓栓塞性疾病,我國發(fā)現(xiàn)尖吻蝮蛇、蝮蛇、眼鏡蛇、竹葉青蛇毒等具有纖溶作用。1984年獲準(zhǔn)生產(chǎn)蝮蛇抗栓酶(Ahalysantinfarctasum),它是從蝮蛇毒中分離、純化所得的凝血酶制劑,具有抗凝、溶栓、去纖、抗血小板粘附聚集、降脂、擴(kuò)張血管等多種功效,因而廣泛的用于各種血管閉塞及循環(huán)障礙性疾病,其效果與日本產(chǎn)東菱精純克栓酶一致。不良反應(yīng):發(fā)熱、頭
15、痛、嗜睡、頭暈、皮下出血、肢體脹痛等,同時(shí)還伴有頻發(fā)房性早搏、增生性齦炎、陰囊巨大型蕁麻疹、過敏性休克、多臟器嚴(yán)重出血、肝細(xì)胞性黃疸、急性腎功能衰竭等。 為解決長期用藥全身性出血的傾向,日本旭化工業(yè)公司與興和公司創(chuàng)產(chǎn)了人體正常細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)生產(chǎn)tPA的方法。tPA即組織血纖維蛋白溶酶原激活劑(tissuetype plasminogen activator,簡稱tPA或TPA),是體內(nèi)各組織中都含有的一種絲氨酸蛋白酶,能選擇的將血栓上的血纖維蛋白溶酶原變成血纖維蛋白溶酶使血栓溶解,在沒有血栓時(shí)幾乎無此作用,與尿激酶等不同,血栓溶解時(shí)不伴有全身性出血的傾向。1991年tPA已上市,藥品名為Tisoki
16、nase,是由人肺二倍體纖維細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的526個(gè)氨基酸殘基組成的絲氨酸蛋白,分子量為1.1110-22 kg(67 kD)。制劑商品名為Plasvata注射劑(東洋釀造)和Hapase注射劑(興和新藥)。tPA是一條單鏈分子,可以經(jīng)特異血纖維蛋白酶作用在Arg275Ile276處斷裂形成雙鏈,其N端重鏈包括的4個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)功能: Finger區(qū)(即F區(qū),可與血纖維蛋白連接) E區(qū)(即類表皮生長因子區(qū)) Kringle 1區(qū)(可簡稱K1區(qū)) Kringle 2區(qū)(可簡稱K2區(qū))目前公認(rèn)治療血栓栓塞癥的最佳藥物應(yīng)為單克隆抗體。最早是Bode等在1985年將抗纖維蛋白單克隆抗體(59D8)與UK共價(jià)連接,制
17、成單抗導(dǎo)向溶血栓劑,從而開辟了溶血栓藥物研究的新領(lǐng)域。隨著現(xiàn)代分子生物學(xué),基因工程技術(shù),蛋白質(zhì)工程技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展,許多新的導(dǎo)向溶血栓劑不斷的進(jìn)入臨床試驗(yàn)。 美國生物遺傳科學(xué)公司(ABC公司)最近成功地開發(fā)出具有良好血栓溶解作用單克隆抗體稱為MH1,能特異性識別血栓成分血纖維蛋白,并顯示了高度溶解作用,在給藥后1530 min產(chǎn)生作用而使血栓消失。ABC公司于1993年6月開始作為新抗血栓藥用于治療心肌梗死和肺栓塞等疾病的臨床試驗(yàn),并在1993年底至1994年初向美國食品和藥物管理局(FDA)申請了生產(chǎn)許可。我國北大蛋白質(zhì)工程和植物基因工程國家重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室在這方面的研究也取得了一定的進(jìn)展,但這種單
18、克隆抗體需經(jīng)靜脈注射或滴注,口服幾近無效。 以美國為首的GUSTO研究組于1990年至1993年進(jìn)行了一國際大規(guī)模治療心肌梗死的研究計(jì)劃。結(jié)果表明:早期應(yīng)用tPA的溶解血栓法是治療急性心肌梗死的最佳方法。但這種tPA在血中的半衰期較短。目前又開發(fā)出第二代tPA即重組組織血纖維蛋白溶酶原激活劑(MTPA或稱rtPA),MTPA系應(yīng)用蛋白質(zhì)工程技術(shù),將天然tPA氨基酸結(jié)構(gòu)中的五處變換為其它氨基酸,從而改變了其結(jié)構(gòu),在血中維持時(shí)間為tPA的10倍,日本衛(wèi)材公司在世界上率先進(jìn)入臨床試驗(yàn)。1992年,美國重組tPA產(chǎn)值已達(dá)1億8千萬美元。自“七五”計(jì)劃起,我國開始開展tPA的DNA在中國倉鼠卵巢細(xì)胞中高
19、效表達(dá)的研究,經(jīng)過多年努力,表達(dá)水平為250 U/(106 cellsd)。據(jù)最新文獻(xiàn)表明,軍事醫(yī)學(xué)科學(xué)院已有人將其表達(dá)水平提高到6000 U/(106 cellsd)。近年來日本報(bào)道了兩種激酶即納豆激酶(Natokinase)和天醅激酶(Tempehkinase),它們分別來自于日本的傳統(tǒng)食品納豆及印度尼西亞的傳統(tǒng)食品天醅中,這兩種食品都是大豆發(fā)酵的產(chǎn)品,歷史悠久,因此分離出的酶其安全性不成問題,而且它們是能達(dá)到“經(jīng)口纖溶療法”目的的高效血栓溶解酶。納豆激酶是1987年日本須見洋行等把納豆放在人工血栓上發(fā)現(xiàn)的,它的分子量較?。s為2萬),是由含丙氨酸的275個(gè)殘基所組成的一條單鏈多肽。不僅能
20、靜脈給藥,口服用藥效果也很好,而且它的體內(nèi)半衰期很長(8d)??诜蠹{豆繳酶除溶解血纖維蛋白外還引起繼發(fā)性的tPA增加,以及能激活尿激酶原(pro UK)使之轉(zhuǎn)化為尿激酶,這表明其作用是多方面的。天醅激酶 分子量約為20 00050 000,在時(shí),50 下可穩(wěn)定保持活性10 min,在血液中其活性可維持10h,對血纖維蛋白有強(qiáng)大的分解活性,而且有活化血纖維蛋白溶酶原的活性,對HDValLeuLyspNA,HDPhepipArgpNA,HDValLeuArgpNA強(qiáng)烈分解。上述兩種藥其分子量小,易于吸收,故可制成腸溶衣膠囊服用,或制成純制劑以靜脈滴入,可用于一般的血栓栓塞癥的治療,同時(shí)還可以作為
21、預(yù)防血栓栓塞癥的藥物或食物。 中科院生物物理研究所和江中制藥廠共同研制了新一代全天然抗血栓藥江中博洛克,于1995年獲衛(wèi)生部批準(zhǔn)正式生產(chǎn),它是采用生化分離技術(shù)從特殊蚯蚓中分離的一種絲氨酸蛋白酶,即蚓激酶(Lumbrokinase)。蚓激酶具有激活人體內(nèi)的纖維蛋白溶酶原和溶解體內(nèi)血栓的作用。在兔中試驗(yàn),蚓激酶不僅抑制血栓形成,而且有很好的溶解血栓作用;在大鼠實(shí)驗(yàn)性腦缺血中應(yīng)用,蚓激酶可溶解血栓,改善腦缺血狀況。又由于博洛克為腸溶衣膠囊,進(jìn)入胃內(nèi)后不被破壞,既保證了療效,又服用方便。但是它的副作用也很明顯,容易導(dǎo)致出血等。目前國內(nèi)外在血栓栓塞癥治療的方向一方面趨向于價(jià)格低,易為人體接收、體內(nèi)半衰期
22、長以及可以口服的藥物或保健性的食品,另一方面趨向于高效,能藥到病除的基因工程藥物。全世界有血栓栓塞性病人1 500萬,所需的溶栓劑的潛在市場約20億美元。在我國豆豉、腐乳等發(fā)酵豆制品的研究中也發(fā)現(xiàn)類似的溶栓酶如豆豉纖溶酶等。但我國在這方面的研究很少,故而開發(fā)前景廣闊。研究開發(fā)類似納豆激酶或天醅激酶的藥物或保健品不僅可以充分開發(fā)我國食品中的功能性微生物,還可以解決我國目前的血栓溶解藥物口服性差、價(jià)格昂貴、并發(fā)癥多的問題,但并不能因此而忽略了后一種基因工程藥物的開發(fā)。 五 NEWS國家一類生物溶栓新藥普佑克即將上市 2011-11-10 “我國十一五重大新藥創(chuàng)制科技重大專項(xiàng)中的首個(gè)治療用生物剖品一
23、類新藥普佑克即將登陸中國?!?普佑克通用名為注射用重組人尿激酶原,是尿激酶的前體,其進(jìn)入血液后并無活性,但在吸附在血栓表面后,經(jīng)激肽酶作用被激活,轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槟蚣っ?,進(jìn)而發(fā)揮溶栓作用,具有明顯的血栓位置特異性,從而大大降低了目前許多溶栓藥較為嚴(yán)重的出血副作用。用于ST段抬高型心肌梗死治療具有一次開通率高、出血性腦卒中發(fā)生率低等顯著優(yōu)勢,將成為中國自主研發(fā)的首個(gè)換代溶栓藥品。 (智信)Emerging antithrombotic drugs: A review Abstract Thromboembolic disorders are one of the disorders for which t
24、he researchers are still in search for a safe and efficient drug. Despite the widespread use of antithrombotic drugs for the prevention and treatment of arterial and venous thrombosis, thromboembolic diseases continue to be a major cause of death and disability worldwide. This shows the researchers
25、inefficiency in searching efficacious and safe antithrombotic drugs. The researchers have reached to the basic mechanism of thrombus formation and by interrupting various steps of this mechanism, they can prevent as well as treat thromboembolic disorders. In continuation of Aspirin, now, the researc
26、hers are using clopedogrel, Ticlopidine and GpIIb/IIIa inhibitors (Abciximab, Tirofiban and Eptifibatide). Warfarin is an old antithrombotic drug, which is still being used but due to various side effects and drug interactions, they are bound to use newer drugs. Newer antiplatelet drugs include pras
27、ugrel, ticagrelor, cangrelor and elinogrel whereas newer thrombin inhibitors are Ximelgatran and Dabigatran. Apixaban and edoxaban are also newer entry in this category as Factor Xa inhibitors. Idrabiotaparinux is an indirect inhibitor of Xa as it accelerates the activity of antithrombin. Moreover,
28、researches and trials for better and safe drugs are going on Keywords:Antiplatelet drugs, Antithrombotic drugs, Thrombin inhibitorsIntroduction One of the major causes of morbidities and mortality worldwide is thromboembolic disorder. Thrombosis is the process of formation of solid mass in circulati
29、on from constituents of flowing blood, and the mass itself is called as thrombus. Hemostatic plugs are the blood clots formed in healthy individuals at the site of bleeding i.e. they are useful as they stop the escape of blood and plasma, whereas thrombi developing in the unruptured blood vessels ma
30、y be harmful. Virchow described three primary events which predispose to thrombus formation (Virchows triad) : endothelial injury; alteration in flow of blood and hypercoagulability of blood. 1 Thrombosis can be either arterial or venous. Both arterial and venous are composed of fibrin, platelets an
31、d trapped RBC. Arterial thrombi are commonly formed after endothelial injury due to rapidly flowing blood, thus, platelets are abundant and fibrin is relatively sparse in arterial thrombus, whereas venous thrombus is formed due to blood stasis in veins, thus venous thrombus is mainly composed of fib
32、rin and trapped RBC but less platelets. This fact is important to treat the patient effectively. Antithrombotic drugs are mainly of three types: (I) antiplatelet agents; (II) fibrinolytic drugs and (III) anticoagulants. By knowing the nature of thrombus, we can institute effective therapy i.e. arter
33、ial thrombus should be treated by antiplatelet agents 2,3 and venous thrombosis should be treated by anticoagulants mainly. 4,5 Despite the widespread use of antithrombotic drugs for the prevention and treatment of arterial and venous thrombosis, thromboembolic diseases continue to be a major cause
34、of death and disability worldwide. That means available drugs are not so much efficacious and sufficient to combat these disorder. 6 Here we are going to review the older drugs in short, their shortcomings i.e. unmet medical needs of currently available antithrombotic therapy and finally the newer d
35、rugs, newer targets and opportunities and challenges for them.The Unmet Need of Current Antithrombotic Therapy Recurrent ischemic events are quite common if patient with previous history of stroke takes aspirin, clopidogrel, ticlopidine or their combinations regularly i.e. at present most widely pre
36、scribed antiplatelet agents are not efficient enough to prevent further attacks. This can be either resistance to these drugs or incomplete suppression of platelets by these drugs.The only oral anticoagulant available in the market for more than half a century i.e. warfarin also tells the same story
37、 with other limitations too. It has very slow onset of action for which it is combined with rapidly acting parenteral anticoagulants for first few days. Due to some genetic polymorphism, dose adjustment is needed in almost every individual because of variable metabolism of Warfarin. There is one imp
38、ortant problem of multiple drug interactions and more than this is its narrow therapeutic index. Because of this inconvenience, patient compliance is poor on long-term basis.Combination therapy (1 antithrombotic agents at a time) has resulted in declining rate of recurrent ischemia but the incidence
39、 of bleeding has increased. 6 Natural Anticoagulant Mechanisms In healthy vasculature, circulating platelets are maintained in an inactive state by nitric oxide and prostacyclin released by endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. Endothelial cells also express ADPase, which degrades ADP released
40、 from RBC and activated platelets, thereby preventing further platelet aggregation. 7 PGI 2 opposes action of TXA 2 and thus inhibits platelet aggregation and release. Antithrombin III (a plasma protein) blocks the action of factors XII, XI, IX, X and II. Protein C (a plasma protein) inactivates fac
41、tor V and VIII not blocked by AT-III; it also enhances the action of t-PA. Also Heparan sulfate (a proteoglycan related to the Heparin) is synthesized by endothelial cells and it enhances the activity of AT-III. 8 Both hemostasis and thrombosis depend on three general components-the vascular wall, p
42、latelets and the coagulation cascade. Platelets contain two specific types of granules. Alpha granules express adhesion molecule, P selectin, on their membranes and contain factor V, vWF, PDGF, fibrinogen and TGFb, whereas d (delta) granules contain ADP, calcium, 5HT and histamine. 9 Vascular injury
43、 leads to transient vasoconstriction and finally, platelets are exposed to ECM via vWF and undergo three reactions: (I) adhesion and shape change; (II) secretion (release reaction) and (III) aggregation. 9 Adhesion of platelets to ECM (extracellular matrix) is facilitated by the interaction of vWF (
44、from endothelium) and Gp IB receptors (on platelets). This adhesion leads to change in shape of platelets and there is release of granules (ADP from dense or delta granules). ADP is a potent mediator of platelet aggregation 9 and it also augments further ADP release. Now, TXA 2 is synthesized and re
45、leased which is also a mediator of platelets aggregation. On one hand, vessel wall disruption augments platelet activation and aggregation, on the other hand, tissue factor initiates coagulation (extrinsic pathway). Phospholipid complexes on platelets activate intrinsic coagulation pathway. Platelet
46、 adhesion involves vWF, whereas aggregation involves GP IIb-IIIa receptors on platelets via fibrinogen. 9 Common coagulation pathway finally produces thrombin, which not only converts fibrinogen to fibrin but also activates platelets. These fibrin strands, along with platelets, now form platelet-fib
47、rin mesh 6 as hemostatic plug or thrombus Antiplatelet agents can be classified on the basis of their site of action into those that inhibit (i) adhesion (ii) activation (iii) aggregation and (iv) platelet-mediated links with inflammation 6 Figure 1. Inhibitors of Platelet Adhesion This step can be
48、inhibited by interfering interaction between GP Ib (platelet receptor) and collagen or vWF. Many drugs are in queue to market which act through above mechanism but none has reached phase III yet. Strategies for inhibiting the ECM-platelet interaction include humanized monoclonal antibodies and aptam
49、ers against the receptors, small molecule peptide inhibitors and proteins derived from the medicinal leech. 6 Inhibitors of Platelet Activation Platelet activation can be inhibited by Inhibitors of TXA 2 pathway Inhibitors of ADP pathway PAR-I inhibitors Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors Inhibitors
50、 of Platelet Aggregation Tirofiban, eptifibatide and abciximab are Gp IIb/IIIa inhibitors. Abciximab inhibits not only Gp IIb/IIIa but also a IIb/b3 receptors (for vWF) on platelets, thereby, decreasing aggregation through fibrinogen. 16 It is given i.v. and has shown its efficacy in reducing ischem
51、ic events in management of ACS and as adjunctive therapy during PCI; 6 however, trials with orally administered Gp IIb/IIIa inhibitors have failed to demonstrate any benefit. Moreover, a pooled data has shown them to significantly increase mortality in ACS cases. 17 Reason behind this is unknown but
52、 may be related to partial agonistic activity or proinflammatory effects. 18 These disappointing results have halted development of this class of drugs. 6 Inhibitors of Platelet-dependent Inflammatory Pathway Inflammation is an important determinant of progression of atherosclerosis and post-thrombo
53、tic syndrome, which complicates DVT 19 through CD40/CD40 ligand pathway and P-selectin. Platelets also play important role in inflammation. 20 CD40 acts as cell attractant molecule and starts proinflammatory response. Also, it is highly expressed in atheromatous plaques. Thus, inhibitors of CD40/CD4
54、0 ligand pathway can be novel molecules for delaying progression of atherosclerosis. 21 P-selectin molecule helps in the formation of platelet leukocyte aggregates. Inhibition of P-selectin will attenuate thrombus stimulus and formation. It has been proved in animal models of DVT 22 but yet to be pr
55、oved in humans.Present Anticoagulants and their Future Prospects Oral anticoagulants i.e. warfarin is in use for more than half a century but too much adverse effects push for developments in this field. Drug interactions, very slow onset of action and variable response are major and problematic lim
56、itations of warfarin. Now, we are targeting towards inhibition of (i) thrombin and (ii) other coagulation factors especially Xa.Thrombin inhibitors Thrombin is a most potent platelet antagonist; it converts fibrinogen to fibrin and also amplifies its own production. Because of its multiple roles in
57、coagulation, thrombin inhibitors not only block fibrin formation but also attenuate further thrombin formation and platelet activation. 23 The first direct thrombin inhibitor, Ximelgatran has shown its efficacy in atrial fibrillation. The major drawback due to which it has been withdrawn is hepatoto
58、xicity. 24 Latest addition in this series is Dabigatran etexilate. Being a prodrug, it is converted to Dabigatran by esterases after oral administration. T 1/2 is 14-17 h and is excreted out of the kidneys, thus, once or twice daily administration is enough. It is undergoing phase III trial for prev
59、ention and treatment of VTE and for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation. Other trials include comparison between Dabigatran and Warfarin (RE-LY) and two doses of Dabigatran with Warfarin (Re-COVER). Pooled data shows no evidence of hepatotoxicity but Dabigatran level increases when used with P-glycoprotein inhibitors (quinidine, clarithromycin and verapamil). 25,26 Factor Xa inhibitors It has been shown
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