Unit-10研究生英語讀與寫(第三版)-

1、Unit-10研究生英語讀與寫(第三版)-Unit-10研究生英語讀與寫(第三版)-Outline Background informationGlobal analysis of the textDetailed study of the textText structure analysisReference answers to the exercisesOutline Background informationBackground informationIntroduction to the topicBackground informationIntroducBackground

2、informationTransplantation is the transfer of a tissue or organ, alive or dead, within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species.Background informationTransplBackground informationIn most cases, human material for transplantation is obtained

3、from a deceased donor. Successful programs for the procurement of human material for transplantation from deceased donors from various cultural, religious and economic backgrounds constitute potential models. Background informationIn mostBackground informationThe need for communities, including heal

4、th professionals, to become better educated about transplantation is widely recognized as a key to the success of such programs.Background informationThe neeHowever, despite the frequent use of materials donated from deceased donors, the donation of materials from living donors is necessary for some

5、 types of transplants or to compensate for the limited supply of material available from deceased donors in order to meet patient needs. Living donation is thus practiced despite the fact that it involves risks for the donor that may not be negligible.Background informationHowever, despite the frequ

6、entThe procurement of human material for transplantation from deceased or living donors and the subsequent allogeneic transplantation entail ethical and safety risks for both the donor and the recipient.Health authorities must provide effective oversight of all aspects of transplantation in order to

7、 control these risks. Background informationThe procurement of human mateThis oversight is also essential for gaining public support by developing and justifying trust in the procurement organization, particularly since donations are often motivated by altruism and generosity. In addition, the decis

8、ion to be a donor is often based on the understanding that a contribution to the availability of transplant resources may someday benefit the health needs of the donors family. (/transplantation/donation/en/index.html, /topics/transplantation/zh/ ) Background informationThis oversight is also essent

9、The History of Transplantation Throughout history people have always been intrigued by the possibility of transplanting organs and tissues from one body to another. During the 15th century we can find references in historical medical literature of attempted blood transfusions as well as the transpla

10、ntation of teeth (presumably from cadavers). A skin transplant and a corneal transplant were reported in medical journals dating as far back as 1880.Background informationThe History of TransplantationOf course, these early attempts at transplantation were usually unsuccessful. It was not until earl

11、y in the 20th century that transplantation offered the promise of renewed health and life envisioned by our ancestors.Background informationOf course, these early attempThe Timeline of Transplantation:1906 First corneal transplant by Austrian ophthalmologist Dr. Edward Zim1908 First skin allograft b

12、y Swiss surgeon Jacques Louis Reverdin1908 First successful cadaver knee joint transplant by Dr Eric Lexer1911 Initial use of homologous vein tissue in arterial reconstruction.1918 First blood transfusion1949 Establishment of US Navy Tissue BankBackground informationThe Timeline of Transplantatio195

13、5 Initial fresh heart valve allograft put into descending aorta1955 Frozen venous allograft for femoral artery bypass 1962 First fresh heart valves implanted into cardiac position1962 First successful cadaveric kidney transplant by Dr. Joseph Murray and Dr. David Hume in Boston, MA. The recipient ha

14、d normal kidney function for 21 months1963 First liver transplant performed by Dr. Thomas StarzlBackground information1955 Initial fresh heart val1963 First lung transplant performed by Dr. James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS1967 First heart transplant performed

15、by Dr. Christian Bernard at Groate Shure Hospital, South Africa. The recipient had normal heart function for 19 months1967 First successful pancreas transplant performed by Dr. Richard C. Lillehei at the University of Minnesota1968 Brain death criteria createdBackground information1963 First lung tr

16、ansplant p1968 The Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. Legislation allows gift of organs to others1971 Frozen heart valves used in allograft1971 Introduction of cryopreserved human skin allografts1972 The Uniform Anatomical Gift Act establishes the Uniform Organ Donor Card as a legal document in all 50 sta

17、tes making it possible for anyone 18 years or older to legally donate his or her organs upon deathBackground information1968 The Uniform Anatomical 1972 End Stage Renal Disease Act paves way for Medicare coverage of all kidney transplants1974 First use of cryopreserved venous allograft1978 Cyclospor

18、in begins testing1979 Living related pancreas transplanted, Minneapolis, MN1981 Brain death criteria expanded by Presidents Commission for Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical ResearchBackground information1972 End Stage Renal Disease1981 First heart and lung transplant performed by

19、Dr. Norman Shumway at Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA1982 Barney Clark receives the first permanent artificial heart at the University of Utah1983 FDA approval of cyclosporine, the most successful anti-rejection medication developed to date1984 First heart/liver transplant performed

20、 by Dr. Starzl at the Childrens Hospital of PittsburghBackground information1981 First heart and lung tr1984 Baby Fae receives a walnut-sized baboon heart in an operation at Loma Linda University Medical Center. She was the first infant to receive an animal organ. Baby Fae lived for 21 days1984 Nati

21、onal Organ Transplant Act (Public Law 98.507) establishes nationwide computer registry operated by the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). The Act also authorizes financial support for organ procurement organizations and outlaws purchase or sale of organsBackground information1984 Baby Fae rece

22、ives a wal1985 New York State, Oregon, and Pennsylvania pass Required Request Law. Mandates all potential organ and tissue donors be approached for donation. Soon thereafter, all remaining 47 states follow suit1986 Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act passed. Requires all potential donors

23、to be approached, superseding state laws and adding hospitals must comply to receive Medicare benefits1988 FDA approval of Viaspan or UW solution, greatly extends preservation time for liversBackground information1985 New York State, Oregon,1988 Joint Commission on Accreditation of Health Care Organ

24、izations sets donor identification and notification standards Requires the hospitals to have policies and procedures in place for the identification, referral and procurement of organs and tissues1989 Dr. Thomas Starzl at the University of Pittsburgh reports clinical success of promising new anti-re

25、jection drug, FK-506Background information1988 Joint Commission on Acc1989 First liver transplant from a living related donor1990 Lung transplantation attempted as cure for Cystic Fibrosis.1990 Dr. Joseph Murray (performed first kidney transplant) awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine1990 Dr. Thomas (pio

26、neered bone marrow transplants as a cure for leukemia) awarded Nobel Prize for MedicineBackground information1989 First liver transplant 1990 First successful heart related lung transplant1991 First attempt at partial lung transplant1991 First successful small intestine transplant1996 U.S. surgeons

27、at Barnes Hospital in St. Louis, University of California, San Francisco, and Stanford University Hospital perform split-liver transplants/History.htmBackground information1990 First successful heart Global analysis of the textOrgan transplants are faced with a series of challenges: outdate of relev

28、ant policies, insufficient organ supply, disputable organ procurement policies etc. The first human context to consider is the dignity and integrity of the human body and the second is the obligations and limits of medicine. Besides, such questions as, “whose wishes should finally prevail in determi

29、ning whether organs are taken or not and what is the meaning of autonomy” should also be listed as elements while considering organ transplants. Global analysis of the textOrMany individuals have given themselves (literally) to save the life of another, and yet the unequivocal protection of those wh

30、o are not-yet-dead (but would be useful if they were) has been called into question. (Para. 3)Detailed study of the textMeaning: Many people have donated their organ(s) to save other people. However, questions remain about the best way to protect those who are close to death. Protection is necessary

31、 because the persons death will benefit others through transplanted organs. Many individuals have given thDetailed study of the textunequivocal: adj. completely clear and without any possibility of doubt.Example: To such a rude question, his answer is an unequivocal “no.”call something into/in quest

32、ion: to cast doubt on somethingExample: These findings call into question the legitimacy of the proceedings. Detailed study of the textuneq “The human body (dead or alive) has not been reduced to mere property, and yet the desperation of watching thousands of individuals die every year while whether

33、 monetary incentives should be used in an effort to increase organ supply. (Para. 3)Detailed study of the text “The human body (dead or aliMeaning: The human body cannot be considered as property. However we feel despair when we notice many people die every year while waiting for suitable organs. Th

34、is situation has aroused a debate about whether money could be given (to donors) in order to increase the organ supply.Detailed study of the textMeaning: The human body cannot “The Other bills offered tax credits to individuals who donate organs (or credits to their surviving families) or reimbursem

35、ent of the costs incurred by living donors. (Para. 4)Detailed study of the text “The Other bills offered tax Meaning: Other bills offered tax deduction to organ donors (or the donors family members) or compensation for the costs incurred by living donors.Detailed study of the text Meaning: Other bil

36、ls offered Detailed study of the texttax credit: an amount of money on which you do not have to pay taxExample: The president proposed to providetax credits to businesses that allow workers time off. reimbursement: compensation paid (to someone) for damages or losses or money already spent etc.Examp

37、le: He received reimbursement for his travel expenses.Detailed study of the texttax .has endorsed the idea of a pilot program that would partially reimburse surviving families for the funeral expenses .(Para. 4)Detailed study of the textMeaning: .has approved of the idea of a trial activity that wou

38、ld partially compensate the surviving families for the funeral expenses.has endorsed the idea of a Detailed study of the textendorse: approve ofExample: The plan does not explicitlyendorsethe private ownership of land.pilot program: activity planned as a test or trialExample: Under apilotprogramNew

39、Zealand will grant visas to 5,000 guest workers this year.Detailed study of the textendoAnd yet, it suggests that an individuals body has meaning only because it is useful; that the body is a tool individuals have rather than what individuals are. (Para. 5) Detailed study of the textMeaning: The sta

40、tement that organs are no use to dead individuals implies that human bodies are utilitarian but not connected to our inner beings. And yet, it suggests that an iIn the case of organ transplantation, this “violation” is done to one person, living or dead, in order to save another with possibilities b

41、oth for great charity and great coercion that this intervention entails. (Para. 6)Detailed study of the textMeaning: In the case of organ transplantation, this “violation” is done to one person, living or dead, in order to save another, which might mean great charity to the person who receive the or

42、gan and great oppression to the organ donor. In the case of organ transplan coercion: the act of compelling by force of authority Example: He claimed he had only acted undercoercion.Detailed study of the text coercion: the act of compelliAnd yet, if saving the most possible lives while inflicting th

43、e least harm on the living were the only significant human obligation, then our policy on organ transplantation (not to mention human experimentation) would be very different. (Para. 7) Detailed study of the textMeaning: Our policy on organ transplantation would be different, and human experimentati

44、on would also be different, if the only criteria for our actions were to save the maximum amount of people through the minimum amount of harm to the living. And yet, if saving the most po inflicton: to make someone suffer by imposing an unpleasant circumstance Example: That pitiful man inflicted a g

45、reat deal of suffering on his wife and children. Detailed study of the text inflicton: to make someone sThe obligation to heal as fundamental as it is to the good life and good society exists in concert (and sometimes in conflict) with other human values. (Para. 7)Detailed study of the textMeaning:

46、The obligation to heal is essential to a good life and a good society, but it works together with and sometimes against other human values. The obligation to heal as fu in concert: jointly, together. This expression uses concert in the sense of “an agreement of two or more persons” . e.g.: When the

47、mind is in concert with the body, one can accomplish a great deal.Detailed study of the text in concert: jointly, togetherDoes autonomy mean having the right to dispose of ones body (or enter into contracts for ones body) in any way an individual sees fit? (Para. 8)Detailed study of the textdispose

48、of: to get rid of, throw outExample: The Green Box project aims to collect unwanted mobile phones and electronic accessories, and dispose of them in an environmentally friendly way.Does autonomy mean having the proposals to compensate individuals for providing organs potentially entail their right t

49、o sell their organs to the highest bidder. (Para. 9) Detailed study of the textMeaning: The proposals to compensate organ donors could lead to organ donors selling their organs to those who give the highest price. proposals to compensate indiDetailed study of the textentail: v. to make it necessary

50、to do somethingExample: This complex plan for rescuing the pregnant woman entails considerable risks. Detailed study of the textenta this means that their claims can neither be written off in advance nor accepted at face value. (Para. 9)Detailed study of the textMeaning: that is to say that the clai

51、ms associated with the policies cant be discarded/disregarded or accepted without further investigation, because they have never been tested. this means that their claim write off: to accept the loss or failure of Example: We will just have to write off the arrangement if we cant find the money for

52、it.Detailed study of the text write off: to accept the loss accept/take something at face value: to accept a situation or accept what someone says, without thinking there may be a hidden meaning. Example: You shouldnt always take his remarks at face value, you know, he is quite eccentric.Detailed st

53、udy of the text accept/take something at faceWe must, as we judge these different policies, think about the meaning of organ transplantation in its fullness. (Para. 10) Detailed study of the textMeaning: When we comment on different policies, we should think about the meaning of organ transplantatio

54、n in all aspects.fullness: completenessExample: In the fullness of her joy, she could hardly speak.We must, as we judge these difThinking about public policy in this area means balancing these different realities and facing soberly the moral costs and benefits of different policies. (Para. 10)Detail

55、ed study of the textMeaning: When thinking about the policies for an organ procurement system, we must take various realities into account and fully understand the moral costs and benefits of each policy as well.Thinking about public policy i sober: adj. having a serious attitude to something Exampl

56、e: Please feel relaxed, he is a sober and intelligent young man. To be more exact, he is your Mr. Right.Detailed study of the text sober: adj. having a serious since an individual might rationally decide that the satisfaction of providing money for his family outweighs his desire to continue living.

57、 (Para. 11)Detailed study of the textMeaning: because a person might think about and decide that providing for his family through the sale of an organ is more important than life. since an individual might ratEach of these policies is trying to preserve or pursue an absolute in isolation of each oth

58、er. (Para. 12)Detailed study of the textMeaning: Each of these policies is trying to preserve or pursue some separate rule or principle that is believed to be true, right, or relevant in all situations.absolute: n. a rule or principle that is believed to be true, right, or relevant in all situations

59、. Example: We tend to think in absolutes.Each of these policies is tryiText structure analysisThe text falls into three parts. Part I (Paragraph 1-4) The background information about organ transplants in the US with the application of two laws Part II (Paragraphs 5-8) Organ transplants from the human contextPart II (Paragraphs 9-12) Different systems for governing the procurement of cadaveric or