Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)教學講義課件

Systemic-Functional-Linguistics-(SFL)Systemic-Functional-LinguisticCourseDescriptionCoursebooks：Thompson’sIntroducingFunctionalGrammar

（1996,2004）Martin&White’sTheLanguageofEvaluation:AppraisalinEnglish(2005,2008)References：Halliday’sAnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar(SecondEdition,1994)Halliday&Matthiessen’sAnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar(ThirdEdition,2004)RecommendedpapersbyChineseresearchers/Systemics/Appraisal/CourseDescriptionCoursebooks2課程要求課程要求：《功能語言學》課的安排：圍繞Thompson的IntroducingFunctionalGrammr（IFG）部分章節(jié)和Martin&White的TheLanguageofEvaluation(AppraisalTheory)部分章節(jié)進行。計分方法：1、LiteratureReview(國內(nèi)外相關(guān)研究述評)（20%）：500字以內(nèi)。2、TermPaper(期末論文)（70%）：運用所學理論分析一個商務或法律語篇（5，000字以內(nèi)）。課程要求課程要求：3SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件4SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件5SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件6Halliday’sownstatementsTheaimhasbeentoconstructagrammarforpurposesoftextanalysis:onethatwouldmakeitpossibletosaysensibleandusefulthingsaboutanytext,spokenorwritten,inmodernEnglish.Inanypieceofdiscourseanalysis,therearealwaystwopossiblelevelsofachievementtoaimat.Oneisthecontributiontotheunderstandingofthetext:thelinguisticanalysisenablesonetoshowhow,andwhy,thetextmeanswhatitdoes.Thehigherlevelofachievementisacontributiontotheevaluationofthetext:thelinguisticanalysismayenableonetosaywhythetextis,orisnot,aneffectivetextforitsownpurposes,…(Halliday,1994:F41)Halliday’sownstatementsThea71.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsTheBackgroundofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsThepioneerofSFLisM.A.K.Halliday,buthistheorywasnotentirelycreatedbyhimself,butwasdevelopedastheresultofinheritanceandborrowingofpredecessors’achievements.PredecessorsWangLiandLuoChangpei:thefunctionalbasisoflanguageFirthandMalinowski:contextandsemanticsoftheLondonSchool.Hjelmslev:Glossematics(語符學):systemandstructureLambandPike:stratificationalgrammarandtagmemics：functionandstrata.1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste81.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsResearchersofSystemicFunctionalLinguisticsApartfromHalliday,thereisalargenumberoffollowersandcooperators.Researchers

M.Gregory:Contextandcontextualtheory;deepsyntaxHuddleston:GrammaticalizationanddeepsyntaxHudson:DependencygrammaranddeepgrammarR.Hasan:CohesionanddiscourseanalysisR.

Fawcett:Functionalsyntax;cognitivefunctionalgrammarJ.Martin:GenreanddiscoursesemanticsC.Matthiessen:functionalgrammar,computationallinguisticsM.Cummings:functionalstylistics,cohesionandcoherenceF.Christie:languageteachingandlanguageeducationJ.MartinandP.White:Appraisaltheory;andlanguageofEvaluation1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste91.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsLinguisticanglesoffunctionalgrammar1．Semioticperspective2．Commonfeaturesandvariations3．Linguisticbehaviour4．Functionaltheory:threetypes:ideational,interpersonalandtextual5．Strataltheory6．Contexttheory:threevariablesofthecontextofsituation:field,tenorandmode7．Proximityandprobability1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste101.2AFunctionalSemanticApproachtoLanguageItisconcernedwithhowpeopleuselanguage;Andhowlanguageisstructuredforuse.Byrelatingstructuretoitsuse,languagehasseveraldifferentfunctions:Ideational:Interpersonal:Textual:Theyformthemeaningpotentialoflanguageasasetofchoices,orasaresource.1.2AFunctionalSemanticAppr111.3Howdopeopleuselanguage?Peopleuselanguagebysayingthingsforapurpose.WhattheysayiswhatSFlinguistsstudy.Whattheysayisthetextstheyproduce.Werelyonauthenticdataforevidence,notintuition.Example:

Text1.1;Text1.2;Text1.3Purpose:toeducatetheparentsToachievethatpurpose,weneedatext,notjustasentence.Alsoweneedtoplanasetofmovesorproceduresforthetext.Asetofmovesorproceduresaremanifestedasthestructureofthetext.1.3Howdopeopleuselanguage12SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件13SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件14SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件15SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件161.3Howdopeopleuselanguage?TEXT1.1givesinformationinachattymanner,butstilliswrittenlanguage.TEXT1.2

givesscientificinformationasanexpert,andiswrittenlanguage.TEXT1.3casualconversation,dialogueandoral.Thisisrealizedbygrammaticalstructuresandvocabulary.Thenwhatdeterminesthechoiceofthedifferenttypesoflanguage?Context.1.3Howdopeopleuselanguage171.4LanguageandContextContextandtextarecloselyrelated.Wecanpredictthetextfromcontext,andpredictthecontextfromthetext.Halliday’sexample:Ifyoucomeacrossonceuponatime,thenyouknowimmediatelythatyouarebeingtoldatraditionalstory,probablyachildren'sstory.Thereisnoothercontextinwhichthatexpressionisused.Youcanthereforepredictquitealotnotonlyaboutwhatisgoingtofollow,butalsoaboutthesituationinwhichthatisactuallybeingused;typi-cally,letussay,someonereadingoutastorytoasmallchild.Ifyouseethisistocertifythat(youonlyseethatinwriting,youneverhearit),italwaysmeansthatsomeimpersonalletterisbeingstarted,usuallyaletterthatisgoingtocertifythatsomeindividualholdscertainqualificationsorhasperformedcertainactions.1.4LanguageandContextContex18Ifyouhearfourhearts,itisprobablynotsomethingtakenfromateenageromancenovel,butabidinagameofbridge:itcanonlyoccuratcertainpointsinacertaincardgame.Ifyouhearonyourmarks,thenyouknowthatitisasportsoccasionataschool,probablyaprimaryschool,andthataraceisabouttobegin;theteacherstartingtheraceissayingonyourmarks,getset,go.(各就各位，預備，跑。）Ifyouhear30please,itcouldbeinashop,butitismorelikelytobeonsomeformofpublictransportwherethecostoftheticketis30c;themeaningis'Iwantone30cticket,please'.Ifyouhearfourhearts,itis191.4LanguageandContextOntheotherhand,withoutthecontext,sometimes,itisdifficulttoknowthemeaningofthetext:1.4LanguageandContextOnthe201.4LanguageandContextSincetherelationbetweentextandcontextisestablished,thenthenextquestionis:Whatdimensionsofcontexthaveanimpactontheuseoflanguage,andwhatdimensionsofthetextareaffectedbytheparticulardimensionsofthecontext?Weneedtostudycontextindetail.ThreeLevels:register,genre,ideologyRegister:(followingMartin’stheory):field,tenorandmode:referringtothesituationalcontextGenre(theculturalcontext):thestagesandstructuresofthetexts.Ideology(thevalueswehold,thebiasesandperspectivesweadopt.)thedominantculturalbeliefsandideas.1.4LanguageandContextSince211.5Howislanguagestructuredforuse?Languageisstructuredaccordingtothemeaningsitrealizes.ItrealizethreedifferentkindsofmeaningsIdeational:representingexperiencesInterpersonal:expressingrolerelationshipsTextual:relatingtexttocontextandsituation;organizingthetext.1.5Howislanguagestructured22SystemnetworkSystemnetwork23社會科學研究法簡介研究的目的和價值在發(fā)掘知識並解決問題，解決前人未曾解決的問題。什麼是研究(research)？它是事實的說明，清楚說明前人未曾說明清楚的事實。我們?yōu)槭颤N要從事研究？旨在訛誤的辨正，改正前人的訛誤。研究的結(jié)果是如何？是在建立理論(研究方法、思想系統(tǒng)等)、建構(gòu)新的研究方法或理論。*1.2社會科學研究法簡介研究的目的和價值在發(fā)掘知識並解決問題，解決研究的結(jié)果是用來說明、解釋或預測我們所生存和生活的世界及其現(xiàn)象。一般研究過程係經(jīng)由發(fā)展假設、蒐集實際資料而給予驗證，企圖以一組客觀的現(xiàn)象(變數(shù))去說明另一組客觀的現(xiàn)象，建立其間的一般性命題(proposition)，最後發(fā)展出一個較完整的理論系統(tǒng)。*1.3研究的結(jié)果是用來說明、解釋或預測我們所生存和生活的世界及其現(xiàn)就方法論(methodology)而言，人們從事的研究，不外乎異中求同、及同中求異，前者是在大量資料中發(fā)現(xiàn)其間的共同性(nomothetic)，而後者則是發(fā)現(xiàn)其間的異質(zhì)性(idiographic)。研究是一門「問題」的學術(shù)，旨在發(fā)現(xiàn)(非「創(chuàng)造」)有用的知識。1.4就方法論(methodology)而言，人們從事的研究，不外研究思考的過程1.歸納法(induction)歸納法是由資料中找出一般性的法則。先由觀察收集資料及記錄若干個事例，探求其間之共同特徵或特徵之間的關(guān)係，進而將研究結(jié)果推廣至其它未經(jīng)觀察之類似事例，而且獲得一項「通規(guī)性」的陳述(強調(diào)「個別通則」)推論程序：理論假設接受或駁斥假設*1.18研究思考的過程1.歸納法(induction)1.18研究思考的過程2.演繹法(deduction)演繹法是由已知事實或理論來推導出新的理論或個案。從一項通則的陳述出發(fā)，再根據(jù)邏輯推論之法則，來獲得一項個別性的陳述(強調(diào)「通則個別」)推論程序：觀察尋找模式達成結(jié)論結(jié)論解釋事實事實支持結(jié)論。*1.19研究思考的過程2.演繹法(deduction)1.19演繹法及歸納法之比較事實

不重視重視重視假設不重視重視重視推論過程重視沒有文獻+統(tǒng)計*

演繹法

歸納法

科學方法1.20演繹法及歸納法之比較事實不重視研究方法的差異性比較1.21研究方法的差異性比較1.211.22各研究法適用場合1.22各研究法適用場合1.23各研究法之適用性考量(1)研究問題的本質(zhì)不同性質(zhì)的問題往往需要不同的研究方法。(2)相關(guān)研究資料的可取得性歸納法就需充裕的原始資料，而演繹法則需足夠的事實前題或理論(3)研究程序的嚴謹性要求(4)研究結(jié)果的效度不同研究法有其不同的內(nèi)部、外部效度1.23各研究法之適用性考量(1)研究問題的本質(zhì)1.28(二)調(diào)查研究法的適用性調(diào)查研究法又稱直接實地(field)調(diào)查法，是透過嚴格的抽樣設計來尋找事實，以探討社會現(xiàn)象諸多變數(shù)之間的關(guān)係，此種研究法適用於大大小小的各種群體，透過群體來選取樣本進行調(diào)查，以發(fā)現(xiàn)社會的與心理的諸多變數(shù)彼此影響的情形、分配狀況及相互關(guān)係，因此又可稱「樣本調(diào)查法」1.28(二)調(diào)查研究法的適用性調(diào)查研究法又稱直接實地(fi1.29調(diào)查研究法的特性1調(diào)查研究含有決定論的意義：研究者探討社會現(xiàn)象所提出理由，以及資料的來源、特性及相關(guān)，都要擬定一個可驗證的研究假設，用統(tǒng)計來檢定其結(jié)果的「真?zhèn)巍埂?調(diào)查研究具有追求普遍性的事實3調(diào)查研究法是屬定量的分析4調(diào)查研究法是化繁為簡的5調(diào)查研究法是可驗證的。*1.29調(diào)查研究法的特性1調(diào)查研究含有決定論的意義：研究者探1.34(二)調(diào)查研究法的限制性1資料的品質(zhì)受制於受訪者的合作意願與能力程度。通常受訪者除了會拒絕接受訪談或?qū)︵]寄問卷置之不理，也可能因為個人的理由排斥訪談、或認為訪問主題過於敏感。即使受訪者能回答問卷，但亦有可能他們本身沒有具備我們要探尋的知識、或是對於研究主題沒有自己的主見。2調(diào)查者很難區(qū)別受訪者答案的正確性與可靠性。*1.34(二)調(diào)查研究法的限制性1資料的品質(zhì)受制於受訪者的合1.37好品質(zhì)論文的的準則(1)研究目的及問題陳述：應作明確的定義並儘可能描述清楚，研究範圍、研究架構(gòu)、及研究限制亦應詳細說明。(2)採用的研究程序亦應描述清楚。(3)研究程序應該小心規(guī)劃，期以能夠達到預定目標。(4)研究者應坦白地報告其研究設計的缺點，並以研究限制」來敘述。(5)資料分析結(jié)果應有充分討論，並說明其意義(6)結(jié)論應以調(diào)查資料為基礎(chǔ)，有發(fā)現(xiàn)多少証據(jù)就說多少話。*1.37好品質(zhì)論文的的準則(1)研究目的及問題陳述：應作明確1.54論文評述十項「準則」論文批判(評論)是要有一套明示的法則及程序的系統(tǒng)，論文審查者再依據(jù)此系統(tǒng)進行評論、評估作者所宣稱的”知識”。易言之，論文論述者(論文審查、研究所考試)是不應根據(jù)個人”感覺”來評論，而是應就文章的結(jié)構(gòu)及程序來評論。1研究設計：適當?shù)难芯糠椒?、取樣適切與否、統(tǒng)計方法、衡量變數(shù)的操作型定義(內(nèi)容效度、建構(gòu)效度、信度)、研究設計之內(nèi)外部效度。*1.54論文評述十項「準則」論文批判(評論)是要有一套明示的1.51論文評述十項「準則」(續(xù))2專業(yè)寫作技巧：文章簡潔扼要、有力3題目選擇(重要性、跨領(lǐng)域整合…)，題目選擇及資料分析技巧儘量是讀者(產(chǎn)界、學界)所關(guān)心的。4對理論建構(gòu)或?qū)嶋H應用有貢獻性(問題解決)。5遵循研究倫理：是否不人道實驗、受訪者資料的保密、欺騙受訪者…。*1.51論文評述十項「準則」(續(xù))2專業(yè)寫作技巧：文章簡潔扼1.58論文評述十項「準則」(續(xù))6能提供後來學者作知識累積，即研究能重複作，理論(模式)不斷的精緻化。7對於本研究限制、能力不足之處，對後續(xù)研究做方向性建議。8文獻探討要相關(guān)性、完整性、重要性、嚴謹性…。9邏輯推演要清楚嚴謹，並與文獻、研究方法、及分析結(jié)果相呼應。10慎選統(tǒng)計分析或數(shù)學模式，統(tǒng)計結(jié)果之顯著性的解釋。1.58論文評述十項「準則」(續(xù))6能提供後來學者作知識累積Systemic-Functional-Linguistics-(SFL)Systemic-Functional-LinguisticCourseDescriptionCoursebooks：Thompson’sIntroducingFunctionalGrammar

（1996,2004）Martin&White’sTheLanguageofEvaluation:AppraisalinEnglish(2005,2008)References：Halliday’sAnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar(SecondEdition,1994)Halliday&Matthiessen’sAnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar(ThirdEdition,2004)RecommendedpapersbyChineseresearchers/Systemics/Appraisal/CourseDescriptionCoursebooks41課程要求課程要求：《功能語言學》課的安排：圍繞Thompson的IntroducingFunctionalGrammr（IFG）部分章節(jié)和Martin&White的TheLanguageofEvaluation(AppraisalTheory)部分章節(jié)進行。計分方法：1、LiteratureReview(國內(nèi)外相關(guān)研究述評)（20%）：500字以內(nèi)。2、TermPaper(期末論文)（70%）：運用所學理論分析一個商務或法律語篇（5，000字以內(nèi)）。課程要求課程要求：42SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件43SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件44SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件45Halliday’sownstatementsTheaimhasbeentoconstructagrammarforpurposesoftextanalysis:onethatwouldmakeitpossibletosaysensibleandusefulthingsaboutanytext,spokenorwritten,inmodernEnglish.Inanypieceofdiscourseanalysis,therearealwaystwopossiblelevelsofachievementtoaimat.Oneisthecontributiontotheunderstandingofthetext:thelinguisticanalysisenablesonetoshowhow,andwhy,thetextmeanswhatitdoes.Thehigherlevelofachievementisacontributiontotheevaluationofthetext:thelinguisticanalysismayenableonetosaywhythetextis,orisnot,aneffectivetextforitsownpurposes,…(Halliday,1994:F41)Halliday’sownstatementsThea461.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsTheBackgroundofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsThepioneerofSFLisM.A.K.Halliday,buthistheorywasnotentirelycreatedbyhimself,butwasdevelopedastheresultofinheritanceandborrowingofpredecessors’achievements.PredecessorsWangLiandLuoChangpei:thefunctionalbasisoflanguageFirthandMalinowski:contextandsemanticsoftheLondonSchool.Hjelmslev:Glossematics(語符學):systemandstructureLambandPike:stratificationalgrammarandtagmemics：functionandstrata.1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste471.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsResearchersofSystemicFunctionalLinguisticsApartfromHalliday,thereisalargenumberoffollowersandcooperators.Researchers

M.Gregory:Contextandcontextualtheory;deepsyntaxHuddleston:GrammaticalizationanddeepsyntaxHudson:DependencygrammaranddeepgrammarR.Hasan:CohesionanddiscourseanalysisR.

Fawcett:Functionalsyntax;cognitivefunctionalgrammarJ.Martin:GenreanddiscoursesemanticsC.Matthiessen:functionalgrammar,computationallinguisticsM.Cummings:functionalstylistics,cohesionandcoherenceF.Christie:languageteachingandlanguageeducationJ.MartinandP.White:Appraisaltheory;andlanguageofEvaluation1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste481.1AHistoricalViewofsystemicfunctionallinguisticsLinguisticanglesoffunctionalgrammar1．Semioticperspective2．Commonfeaturesandvariations3．Linguisticbehaviour4．Functionaltheory:threetypes:ideational,interpersonalandtextual5．Strataltheory6．Contexttheory:threevariablesofthecontextofsituation:field,tenorandmode7．Proximityandprobability1.1AHistoricalViewofsyste491.2AFunctionalSemanticApproachtoLanguageItisconcernedwithhowpeopleuselanguage;Andhowlanguageisstructuredforuse.Byrelatingstructuretoitsuse,languagehasseveraldifferentfunctions:Ideational:Interpersonal:Textual:Theyformthemeaningpotentialoflanguageasasetofchoices,orasaresource.1.2AFunctionalSemanticAppr501.3Howdopeopleuselanguage?Peopleuselanguagebysayingthingsforapurpose.WhattheysayiswhatSFlinguistsstudy.Whattheysayisthetextstheyproduce.Werelyonauthenticdataforevidence,notintuition.Example:

Text1.1;Text1.2;Text1.3Purpose:toeducatetheparentsToachievethatpurpose,weneedatext,notjustasentence.Alsoweneedtoplanasetofmovesorproceduresforthetext.Asetofmovesorproceduresaremanifestedasthestructureofthetext.1.3Howdopeopleuselanguage51SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件52SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件53SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件54SystemicFunctionalLinguistics(SFL)教學講義課件551.3Howdopeopleuselanguage?TEXT1.1givesinformationinachattymanner,butstilliswrittenlanguage.TEXT1.2

givesscientificinformationasanexpert,andiswrittenlanguage.TEXT1.3casualconversation,dialogueandoral.Thisisrealizedbygrammaticalstructuresandvocabulary.Thenwhatdeterminesthechoiceofthedifferenttypesoflanguage?Context.1.3Howdopeopleuselanguage561.4LanguageandContextContextandtextarecloselyrelated.Wecanpredictthetextfromcontext,andpredictthecontextfromthetext.Halliday’sexample:Ifyoucomeacrossonceuponatime,thenyouknowimmediatelythatyouarebeingtoldatraditionalstory,probablyachildren'sstory.Thereisnoothercontextinwhichthatexpressionisused.Youcanthereforepredictquitealotnotonlyaboutwhatisgoingtofollow,butalsoaboutthesituationinwhichthatisactuallybeingused;typi-cally,letussay,someonereadingoutastorytoasmallchild.Ifyouseethisistocertifythat(youonlyseethatinwriting,youneverhearit),italwaysmeansthatsomeimpersonalletterisbeingstarted,usuallyaletterthatisgoingtocertifythatsomeindividualholdscertainqualificationsorhasperformedcertainactions.1.4LanguageandContextContex57Ifyouhearfourhearts,itisprobablynotsomethingtakenfromateenageromancenovel,butabidinagameofbridge:itcanonlyoccuratcertainpointsinacertaincardgame.Ifyouhearonyourmarks,thenyouknowthatitisasportsoccasionataschool,probablyaprimaryschool,andthataraceisabouttobegin;theteacherstartingtheraceissayingonyourmarks,getset,go.(各就各位，預備，跑。）Ifyouhear30please,itcouldbeinashop,butitismorelikelytobeonsomeformofpublictransportwherethecostoftheticketis30c;themeaningis'Iwantone30cticket,please'.Ifyouhearfourhearts,itis581.4LanguageandContextOntheotherhand,withoutthecontext,sometimes,itisdifficulttoknowthemeaningofthetext:1.4LanguageandContextOnthe591.4LanguageandContextSincetherelationbetweentextandcontextisestablished,thenthenextquestionis:Whatdimensionsofcontexthaveanimpactontheuseoflanguage,andwhatdimensionsofthetextareaffectedbytheparticulardimensionsofthecontext?Weneedtostudycontextindetail.ThreeLevels:register,genre,ideologyRegister:(followingMartin’stheory):field,tenorandmode:referringtothesituationalcontextGenre(theculturalcontext):thestagesandstructuresofthetexts.Ideology(thevalueswehold,thebiasesandperspectivesweadopt.)thedominantculturalbeliefsandideas.1.4LanguageandContextSince601.5Howislanguagestructuredforuse?Languageisstructuredaccordingtothemeaningsitrealizes.ItrealizethreedifferentkindsofmeaningsIdeational:representingexperiencesInterpersonal:expressingrolerelationshipsTextual:relatingtexttocontextandsituation;organizingthetext.1.5Howislanguagestructured61SystemnetworkSystemnetwork62社會科學研究法簡介研究的目的和價值在發(fā)掘知識並解決問題，解決前人未曾解決的問題。什麼是研究(research)？它是事實的說明，清楚說明前人未曾說明清楚的事實。我們?yōu)槭颤N要從事研究？旨在訛誤的辨正，改正前人的訛誤。研究的結(jié)果是如何？是在建立理論(研究方法、思想系統(tǒng)等)、建構(gòu)新的研究方法或理論。*1.2社會科學研究法簡介研究的目的和價值在發(fā)掘知識並解決問題，解決研究的結(jié)果是用來說明、解釋或預測我們所生存和生活的世界及其現(xiàn)象。一般研究過程係經(jīng)由發(fā)展假設、蒐集實際資料而給予驗證，企圖以一組客觀的現(xiàn)象(變數(shù))去說明另一組客觀的現(xiàn)象，建立其間的一般性命題(proposition)，最後發(fā)展出一個較完整的理論系統(tǒng)。*1.3研究的結(jié)果是用來說明、解釋或預測我們所生存和生活的世界及其現(xiàn)就方法論(methodology)而言，人們從事的研究，不外乎異中求同、及同中求異，前者是在大量資料中發(fā)現(xiàn)其間的共同性(nomothetic)，而後者則是發(fā)現(xiàn)其間的異質(zhì)性(idiographic)。研究是一門「問題」的學術(shù)，旨在發(fā)現(xiàn)(非「創(chuàng)造」)有用的知識。1.4就方法論(methodology)而言，人們從事的研究，不外研究思考的過程1.歸納法(induction)歸納法是由資料中找出一般性的法則。先由觀察收集資料及記錄若干個事例，探求其間之共同特徵或特徵之間的關(guān)係，進而將研究結(jié)果推廣至其它未經(jīng)觀察之類似事例，而且獲得一項「通規(guī)性」的陳述(強調(diào)「個