美國(guó)歷史、文化與外交英文版 5-8 講 B

美國(guó)歷史、文化與外交

第5—8講孔慶山Cabot’sSecondVoyageandLostCabotreturnedtoEnglandinAugust1497andannouncedthathehadreachedAsia.Hewascalled"TheGreatAdmiral,"andthekingpaidhimarewardandgavehimanannualpension.In1498,thekingandseveralmerchantspaidforasecondvoyage.CabotsailedfromBristolwithfiveships,intendingtoexploresouthwardfromtheplacewherehehadlanded.StormsforcedoneshipbacktoEngland.NooneknowswhathappenedtoCabotandtheotherfourvessels.FirstEnglishmantosailaroundtheworldSirFrancisDrake(1543?-1596),anexplorerandmilitarycommander,wasthefirstEnglishmantosailaroundtheworld.Drakewasthemostfamousoftheseacaptainswhoroved漫游theoceansduringtheruleofQueenElizabethI.Thequeenencouragedthe“seadogs”toraidSpanishshipping.Shegavethemmoneyandshipsforsuchvoyages,andshesharedinthetreasuretheybroughtback.Drakelivedinthegreatageofpiracyandbecameoneofthemostfearedpirates海盜ofhistime.Drake’sLootinginWestIndiesFrom1570to1572,Draketookpartinlooting劫掠missionstotheWestIndies.In1572,heseizedseveralSpanishshipsoffthecoastofPanama.HelandedonthecoastandcapturedtheportofNombredeDios,nearColon科隆.Drakethenlootedthetownandambushed埋伏amule倔強(qiáng)traincarryingPeruvian秘魯人的silveracrosstheIsthmus地峽ofPanama.Voyagearoundtheworld.Drake'smostfamousvoyagebeganonDec.13,1577.Heandmorethan160mensailedfromPlymouthinthePelican,theElizabeth,andtheMarigold.Twootherships,theSwanandtheBenedict,carriedsupplies.Theoriginalgoalsofthevoyagearenotclear.ButDrakehopedtoexplorethepossibilitiesoftradeandcolonialsettlementinthePacificOcean.DrakealsomayhaveintendedtosearchforanundiscoveredcontinentthatwasbelievedtolieintheSouthPacific.HeprobablyplannedtolootSpanishships.SirWalterRaleighandVirginiaRaleigh(1552?-1618)wasasoldier,explorer,writer,poet,andbusinessman.In1581,hewenttoQueenElizabeth'scourtandbecamethequeen'sfavorite.Shegrantedhimanestateof12,000acresinIreland.ShealsogavehimtradeprivilegesandtherighttocolonizeinAmerica.Raleighbecamedeeplyinterestedinexploration.HesentseveralexpeditionstoAmerica,andspentafortunetryingtoestablishanEnglishcolonythere.TheLostColonyRaleighestablishedacolonyonRoanokeIsland1585.ButsicknessandfearcausedthesurvivorsofthisfirstEnglishcolonyinNorthAmericatogohomewithFrancisDrakein1586.ThisColonyrepresentsthefirstEnglishattemptatsettlementinNorthAmerica.

In1587,Raleighsentasecondexpedition.Agroupof117colonists,including17women,landedonRoanokeIsland.OnAug.18,1587,thefirstEnglishchildwasborninNorthAmerica.JohnWhite,thegovernor,wentbacktoEnglandforsupplies.HewasdelayedbywarwithSpain,andwhenhereturnedin1590,thesettlershadmysteriouslydisappeared.Raleigh’sFallHeledotherexpeditionsagainstSpanishpossessionsandreturnedwithmuchbooty戰(zhàn)利品.Duringthe1590's,hispowerreacheditsheight,andhehadmuchinfluenceandmanyenemies.RaleighalsohelpedintroducethepotatoplantandtobaccousetoIreland.Raleighlostthequeen‘sfavorbymarryingoneofherattendants服務(wù)員.Hopingtorecoverhispositionandthemoneyhehadspent,heledanexpeditiontoGuiana圭那亞,inSouthAmerica,tosearchforalegendary傳說中的landofgold.However,theexpeditionfailed.早期的冒險(xiǎn)精神以及對(duì)海盜的頌揚(yáng)在16世紀(jì)后期，“所有風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和不幸”都被人為是“可忍受的”，所有海盜行為也作為“探險(xiǎn)”行為而受到歡迎。學(xué)者們很少對(duì)這一時(shí)期追求財(cái)富和權(quán)力的亢奮情緒作過公正評(píng)價(jià)。要想抓住這個(gè)時(shí)代的脈搏，必須回過頭來看看哈克魯特的《英國(guó)主要航行，航海和地理發(fā)現(xiàn)》（1589-1600年出版）。哈克魯特驕傲地宣稱，英國(guó)“在搜尋世界的天涯海角和……環(huán)球航行‘方面’勝過了所有其他國(guó)家和民族”。一位說西班牙總督把德雷克譽(yù)為“一個(gè)最偉大的海員”，說“他是在六弦琴的伴奏中飲酒品茶”，而且“帶有畫家為他把海岸的本色準(zhǔn)確無誤地繪制下來”。最早產(chǎn)自美洲的農(nóng)作物玉米、紅薯、土豆、花生、向日葵、腰果辣椒、番茄、苦瓜、菠蘿、南瓜、木瓜、西葫蘆煙草高粱，原產(chǎn)于埃及和印度，15世紀(jì)傳到歐洲，17世紀(jì)傳到美洲，18世紀(jì)傳入我國(guó)。VirginiaCompanyTheVirginiaCompanywasformedwithacharterfromKingJamesIin1606.TheCompanywasajointstockcorporationchargedwiththesettlementofVirginia.IthadthepowertoappointtheCouncilofVirginia,theGovernorandotherofficials,andtheresponsibilitytoprovidesettlers,suppliesandshipsfortheventure.WhoIsLikelytoGototheAmericaThecompanyproposedtoestablishanewhomefortheunemployedwhoswarmed蜂擁intoEnglishtowns,butthese‘sturdybeggars’didnotcaretoemigrateaslandlesswage-slaves.Sothefirstcolonyconsistedlargelyofdecayedgentlemen,releasedprisoners,andafewhonestartisans.Jamestownwasaverymalarial患瘧疾的site.Asin孤獨(dú)、病癥、饑餓與死亡從登陸的第一天起，這批移民就陷入了非常艱難的境地。身后的大海成了不可逾越的障礙，把他們與文明世界隔開。沒有糧食，沒有房屋，沒有市鎮(zhèn)，也沒有朋友，只有遍地都是的野獸和一望無際的荒野。他們當(dāng)中很少有受過野外生存訓(xùn)練的。詹姆士敦是個(gè)瘧疾（malaria）猖獗的地方，人人遭受疾病的折磨之苦。他們本來是來尋找黃金的，而且他們一登陸后就立即開始了尋找，但一無所獲。他們也曾種植小麥，但光長(zhǎng)秸稈不結(jié)穂。移民們登陸后的第一個(gè)冬天就有許多移民死去，當(dāng)1608年春天到來時(shí)，只有53人活了下來。TrialofVirginiaThecolonywasreducedtothelaststageofwretchedness悲慘.‘Everiemanalmostlaments哀悼himselfofbeinghere,’wroteGovernorDalein1611.hedespairedofmakingasuccesswith‘sutchdisordered害了病的persons,soprophane,soriotous暴動(dòng)的…besidesofsutchdiseasedandcrasedbodies.’HehopedthekingwouldsendtoVirginia,outofthecommonjails,allmencondemnedtodie;theyatleastmightbeglad‘tomakethistheirnewCountrie.’Twiceadaytheyweremarchedintothefieldsbybeatofdrumorintotheforeststocutwood,andtwiceadaymarchedbacktoJamestowntoeatandpray.

Primitive原始的Communism共產(chǎn)主義intheColonyThecolonywasrunon"communist"principles—eachpersoncontributedthefruitofhislaboraccordingtohisabilitytoacommonstorehouserunbythecompany,andfromthiscommonstoreeachreceivedproduceaccordingtohisneed.Theresultwaswhatwemightexpect:settlershadlittleincentive激勵(lì)的towork.Withthemotorofincentivegonefromeachindividual,eventhemenace威脅ofdeathandstarvationforthegroupasawhole—andevenaveritable真正的reignofterrorbythegovernors—couldnotprovidethenecessaryspur刺激foreachparticularman.

ReignofTerrorinVirginiaThecommunismwasonlyanaspectoftheharshnessofthelaws.Absolutepoweroflifeanddeathoverthecolonistswasoftenheldbyoneortwocouncillors議員ofthecompany.CaptainJohnSmith,theonlysurvivingRoyalCouncilmemberinthewinterof1609,readhisabsolutepowerstothecolonistsonceaweek.“TherearenomoreCouncilstoprotectorcurb路邊myendeavors盡力,”hethundered,andeveryviolator違反者ofhisdecreescould"assuredlyexpecthisduepunishment."Martial軍事的LawSirThomasGates,governorin1609,wasinstructedbythecompanyto“proceedbymartiallaw.”GatesestablishedacodeofmilitarydisciplineoverthecolonyinMay1610.Sometwenty“crimes”werepunishablebydeath,includingsuchpracticesastradingwithIndianswithoutalicense,killingcattleandpoultrywithoutalicense,escapefromthecolony,andpersistentrefusaltoattendchurch.Oneofthemostheinous極惡的actswasapparentlyrunningawayfromthisvirtualprisontothesupposedlysavageIndiannatives;capturedrunawaycolonistswereexecuted執(zhí)行byhanging,shooting,burning,orbeingbrokenonthewheel.Dale'sLawsThomasDale,thenextgovernorandrulerofthecolony,increasedtheseverity嚴(yán)厲ofthelawsinJune1611.Dale‘sLaws—“theLawsDivine,MoralandMartial”—becamejustlynotorious聲名狼藉的:Theyprovided,forexample,thateverymanandwomaninthecolonybeforcedtoattenddivineservicetwiceadayorbeseverelypunished.Forthefirstabsence,theculprit犯人wastogowithoutfood;forthesecond,tobepubliclywhipped;andforthethird,tobeforcedtoworkinthegalleysforsixmonths.NootheroffensewasmorecriminalthananycriticismoftheChurchofEngland:torture拷打anddeathwerethelotofanywhopersistedinopencriticism.

TextofDale'sLawsThatnomanspeakimpiously不虔誠(chéng)地...againsttheholyandblessedTrinity...oragainsttheknownArticlesoftheChristianfaith,uponpainofdeath....Thatnomanshalluseanytraitorous不忠的wordsagainstHisMajesty'sperson,uponpainofdeath....Noman...shalldaretodetract,slander誹謗,calumniate中傷orutterunseemlyspeeches,eitheragainstCounciloragainstCommittees,Assistants...etc.Firstoffensetobewhippedthreetimes;secondoffensetobesenttogalleys;thirdoffense—death.OffensessuchasobtainingfoodfromtheIndians,stealingfood,andattemptingtoreturntoEnglandwerepunishablebydeathandtorture.SmallReformGovernorDale'smajorconstructiveactwastobeginslightlytheprocessofdissolutionofcommunismintheVirginiacolony;tostimulateindividualself-interest,hegrantedthreeacresofland,andthefruitsthereof,toeachoftheoldsettlers.Yeardley’sReformSirGeorgeYeardleywasappointedgovernor.Heatonceproceededtoreformthedespotic專制的lawsofthecolony.HesubstitutedamuchmildercodeinNovember1618(calledbythecolonists“TheGreatCharter”).Yeardleyalsoincreasedtofiftyacres英畝theallotment分配oflandtoeachsettler,therebyspeedingthedissolutionofcommunism,andalsobeginningtheprocessoftransferringlandfromthecompanytotheindividualsettlerwhohadoccupiedandworkedit.Furthermore,landthathadbeenpromisedtothesettlersafteraseven-yeartermwasnowallottedtothemimmediately.YeardleyreformsThecoloniststhemselvestestified證實(shí)tothesplendideffectsoftheYeardleyreforms,inadeclarationof1624.Thereformsgavesuchencouragementtoeverypersonherethatallofthemfollowedtheirparticularlaborswithsingular單一的alacrityandindustry,sothat...withinthespaceofthreeyears,ourcountryflourished繁榮withmanynewerectedPlantations....Theplentyofthesetimeslikewise同樣地wassuchthatallmengenerallyweresufficientlyfurnishedwithcorn,andmanyalsohadplentyofcattle,swine,poultry,andothergoodprovisionstonourishthem.煙草的發(fā)現(xiàn) 一種有利可圖的植物，最終改變了殖民地的處境。移民們一直在尋找致富的途徑。黃金是找不到了，但是能否找到一種在英國(guó)市場(chǎng)上能賣出好價(jià)錢的商品？最后，他們找到了一種植物——煙草！很快他們就發(fā)現(xiàn)，這是能使弗吉尼亞真正繁榮起來的東西！煙草（tabaco）的傳播煙草原產(chǎn)地就是美洲。在哥倫布發(fā)現(xiàn)新大陸時(shí)，即流傳開來關(guān)于“冒煙的印第安人”的故事。哥倫布的手下人說，印第安人用一種木制長(zhǎng)管，將煙草點(diǎn)燃后冒出來的煙吸進(jìn)鼻孔，吸后他們好像很興奮。60年后，一名被派往美洲殖民地考察的西班牙科學(xué)家，將煙草帶回了歐洲，立刻引起了轟動(dòng)。起初，煙草在歐洲被用于治療疾病，將煙草煮上幾個(gè)小時(shí)，再制成酊劑服用，據(jù)說能治一切疾病。到16世紀(jì)末時(shí)，人們就開始吸著玩了，他們發(fā)現(xiàn)吸了煙后能產(chǎn)生一種快意，感到心境平和，于是吸煙就流傳開來，歐洲的大部分男人加上一部分女人，都吸上了煙。種植煙草的巨額利潤(rùn)印第安人種植的煙草味道太辣，1612年時(shí)，一位與印第安酋長(zhǎng)的女兒波卡洪塔斯結(jié)婚的英國(guó)殖民者約翰·羅爾夫，在弗吉尼亞試種西印度群島的煙草獲得成功，這種煙葉“勁大而帶甘甜，真是令人喜歡”。這種煙草在弗吉尼亞每英畝能產(chǎn)州500磅，運(yùn)到英國(guó)市場(chǎng)，每磅能售5先令。這對(duì)移民來說是一筆了不起的財(cái)源。巨大的利潤(rùn)刺激了弗吉尼亞種植煙草的強(qiáng)勁勢(shì)頭。Aman'slaborintobaccocouldearnsixtimesasmuchasingrain.早期的禁煙運(yùn)動(dòng)但是，英國(guó)人的吸煙卻使國(guó)王詹姆士一世深感厭惡，他發(fā)起了一場(chǎng)禁煙運(yùn)動(dòng)。他認(rèn)為“這種使人上當(dāng)受騙的煙草，既非生活必需品，亦非生活裝飾品”，而吸煙本身是“一種視之可惡，聞之可厭，有害于腦，危及于肺的習(xí)慣。黑霧騰騰，臭氣熏熏，極似無底深淵冒起可怖的毒焰”。其他歐洲君主走得更遠(yuǎn)，俄國(guó)沙皇規(guī)定，隨身攜帶煙草者，將被鞭打25下；土耳其帝國(guó)規(guī)定，吸煙者，砍頭。但是，所有這些嚴(yán)刑峻法都不能阻止人們吸煙，自然也不能阻止弗吉尼亞人種植煙草。RapidExpansionofTobaccoTobaccocouldbereadilyexportedtoEuropeandexchangedforothergoodsneededbythecolonists.By1617tobaccowasbeingplantedeveninthestreetsofJamestown.AnindextotheextremelyrapidrateofgrowthofthetobaccoproductionisthequantityofVirginiatobaccoimportedbyEngland:2.5thousandpoundsin1616;50,000poundsin1618;119,000poundsin1620;and203,000poundsin1624.弗吉尼亞的土地制度：Headrights 弗吉尼亞的土地制度也是促進(jìn)該殖民地迅速發(fā)展的一個(gè)重要因素。1618年，公司開始實(shí)施即按人分配土地的“人頭權(quán)利制”。根據(jù)這一制度，凡自費(fèi)到美洲的移民，每人免費(fèi)被授予50英畝土地。如果一家3口人自美洲，可以免費(fèi)得150英畝的土地，這是相當(dāng)大一塊土地！ 這種土地分配制度，后來成為南部殖民地的主要土地分配方式。土地私有制激發(fā)了移民移往北美的積極性。從少地或無地的歐洲，來到土地唾手可得的美洲，吸引力之大是可想而知的。土地投機(jī)與大地產(chǎn)的形成Headrightsspeculation,thewealthierplanterscouldacquirevasttractsbyaccumulatingnumerousheadrights.Buyvisitors’headrights,captainsoldcrew’sheadrights,ect.Largegrantsoflandweremadetoleadingstockholdersofthecompany.Agrantof100acresforeachshareofstock.Thecompanyalsosold"billsofadventure,"entitlingtheholdersnottostock,butspecificallyto100acresofVirginialandper"bill."Eachbillwasthesamedenominationasacompanyshare(￡1210s).ACaseofHeadrightSpeculation投機(jī)買賣TheissuanceofthefirstprovenpatentinArlingtonCountyisdatedOctober21,1669.Thispatentwasfora6,000acretractoflandgrantedtoRobertHowson,aWelshseacaptain.Howsoncarried116personsonboardhisshipwhichincludedtennegroids.Howsonwasgivenabonusoffourtimesforhimselfwhich,addedtothe116personshetransported,makesatotalof120persons.TheHowsonPatentwasgrantedundertheheadrightsystemofentitlingapersonto50acresforeachpersontransportedtocolonialVirginia.早期民主基石的奠定In1618thecompanyinstructedthegovernortointroducecommonlawandsummonarepresentativeassemblywithpowertomakeby-laws,subjecttothecompany’sconsentinEngland.DemocracymadeherAmericandebuton30July1619,when22‘burgesses,’twofromeachsettleddistrict,electedbyvoteofallmen17andupward,metwiththegovernor’scouncilinthechurchatJamestown.Fromthattimeforth,governmentofthepeople,andtheruleoflawhavebeenfundamentalprinciplesoftheEnglishcoloniesandtheUnitedStates.“五月花”使美與普利茅斯的建立1608年，一批受宗教迫害的英國(guó)獨(dú)立派清教徒，為了尋找比較寬容的宗教環(huán)境，來到了荷蘭的阿姆斯特丹。后來又遷移到荷蘭的工業(yè)城市萊頓。后來，由于這個(gè)地方可能會(huì)受到即將暴發(fā)的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的威脅，他們?cè)噲D盡早離開這個(gè)地方。這時(shí)有一個(gè)商人同意出資資助他們?nèi)ッ乐蕖Ｋ麄兘邮芰速Y助。 1620年7月，這批清教徒乘船離開萊頓，到英國(guó)的南安普頓與停泊在那里的“五月花”號(hào)船會(huì)合，一同赴美。由于他們的船已經(jīng)破爛，他們只好棄掉他們自己的破船，搬到“五月花”號(hào)上。1620月9月，“五月花”號(hào)載著102名移民，開始了漫長(zhǎng)而艱難的旅程。美國(guó)人后來把這批人稱為“清教始祖”《五月花號(hào)公約》的締訂“五月花”號(hào)移民船原定的目標(biāo)是去弗吉尼亞，但海上的狂風(fēng)巨浪使其偏離航線900多海里，他們被吹到了北部的馬薩諸塞海灣。1620年11月，他們?cè)隈R薩諸塞海灣的科德角靠岸。這地方不在弗吉尼亞公司的管轄范圍內(nèi)，他們到了法外之地！這批移民憑著英國(guó)人特有的自治本能，于登陸前訂立了一項(xiàng)生死與共的公約——《五月花號(hào)公約》（MayflowerCompact）?！段逶禄ㄌ?hào)公約》內(nèi)容以上帝的名義，阿門。吾等簽署人，信仰之捍衛(wèi)者，蒙上帝恩佑的大不列顛、法蘭西及愛爾蘭國(guó)王詹姆士陛下的忠誠(chéng)臣民——為了上帝的榮耀，為了吾王與基督信仰和榮譽(yù)的增進(jìn)，吾等越海揚(yáng)帆，以在弗吉尼亞北部開拓最初之殖民地，因此，在上帝面前共同莊嚴(yán)立誓簽約，自愿結(jié)為一民眾自治團(tuán)體。為使上述目的得以順利進(jìn)行、維持并發(fā)展，亦為將來能隨時(shí)制定和實(shí)施有益于本殖民地總體利益的一應(yīng)公正法律、法規(guī)、條令、憲章及公職，吾等全體保證遵守與服從。TrialatPlymouthInmid-December1620theMayflowerlandedatPlymouth.InaduplicationoftheterriblehardshipsofthefirstVirginiasettlers,halfofthecolonistsweredeadbytheendofthefirstwinter.Inmid-1621JohnPeirceandAssociatesobtainedapatentfromtheCouncilforNewEngland,grantingthecompany100acresoflandforeachsettlerand1,500acrescompulsorilyreservedforpublicuse.Inreturn,theCouncilwastoreceiveayearlyquitrentoftwoshillingsper100acres.PilgrimCommunisminPlymouthThePilgrimsformedapartnershipinajoint-stockcompanywithagroupofLondonmerchants.Thecompanyreceivedin1620agrantfromtheVirginiaCompanyforaparticularplantationinVirginiaterritory.Inthisalliance,eachadultsettlerwasgrantedashareinthejoint-stockcompany,andeachinvestmentof10poundsalsoreceivedashare.Attheendof7years,theaccumulatedearningsweretobedividedamongtheshareholders.Untilthatdivision,thecompanydecreedacommunisticsystemofproduction,asystemof"fromeachaccordingtohisability,toeachaccordingtohisneeds."TheEndofStarvingTimeAmajorreasonforthepersistenthardships,forthe"starvingtime,"wasthecommunismimposedbythecompany.Finally,inordertosurvive,thecolonyin1623permittedeachfamilytocultivateasmallprivateplotoflandfortheirindividualuse.Thishadverygoodsuccess,foritmadeallhandsveryindustrious,soasmuchmorecornwasplantedthanotherwise.Thewomennowwentwillinglyintothefield,andtooktheirlittleoneswiththemtosetcorn;whichbeforewouldallegeweaknessandinability…SlowDevelopmentofPlymouthBy1630Plymouthpopulationwasstilllessthan400.ItsgovernmentbeganintheMayflowerCompact,withtheoriginalsignersforminganAssemblyformakinglaws,choosingagovernor.Religiousexclusivenessinacolonyhampersitsgrowth.Plymouthwasdestinedtoremainasmallcolonyinwhichthenominalrulers,thefreemen,wererarelyconsulted,andthegovernorandtheCouncilimposedanoligarchicrule.ButaftertheCouncilforNewEnglandwasdissolvedin1635,Plymouthneverthelessbecameafullyself-governingcolony.TheMassachusettsBayColony

TheMassachusettsBayCompanyreceivedaroyalcharteronMarch4,1629.Thefirst400settlersunderthisnewcharterdepartedinApril1629.Most,butnotallofthemembersoftheCompanywerePuritans.Perhapsbyoversight,thecompany'schartermadenomentionofthelocationofitsheadquarters.OnAugust29,theshareholderswhowishedtomovetoAmericareachedanagreementandboughtoutthosewhowishedtoremaininEngland.SowhenJohnWinthropsetoutwiththenextwaveof700settlersinMarchof1630,theycarriedtheirCharterwiththem,andWinthropreplacedEndicottasgovernoroftheColony.CityuponaHillTheideathatthiscolonywasacommunitywithaspecialcovenant契約withGodwaslaidoutinWinthrop'ssermon,"ACityuponaHill."Theideathattheirswasaholycommunityshapedlifeinthecolonyenormously,makingitimperativethatcolonistslegislatemorality,enforcingmarriage,churchattendance,andeducationintheWordofGodaswellasrelentlesslyseekingoutandpunishingsinandsinners.RapidGrowthofthePuritanColonyMassachusettsBaycontinueditsrapidgrowth,inspiteofseriousdifficulties.Duringthefirstwinter(1630-1631),over200died.Whenthenextshipscame,morechosetoreturntoEngland.Thiswas,infact,theonlytragicwinterfacedbytheyoungcolony.SincethepressuresonthePuritannon-conformistsathomecontinued,sodidincreasingandrapidimmigration,andbytheendof1631thecolonynumberedover2,000.Overthenextseveralyears,thegrowthcontinued.MinistersrejectedinEnglandalsomadethetripwiththeirflocks.

TheseedsofdemocracyThecolony'schartergrantedtheauthoritytoelectofficersandtomakelawsforthecolony.ItsfirstmeetinginAmericawasheldOctoberof1630,butwasattendedbyonlyeightfreemen.Theyvotedtograntalllegislative,executive,andjudicialpowertoa"Council"oftheGovernor'sassistants.Theythensetuptownboundaries,createdtaxes,andelectedofficers.Toquellunrestcausedbythislimitedfranchise,theeightthenadded118settlerstothecourtasfreemen,butpowerremainedwiththecouncil.Thefirstmurmersagainstthesystemarosewhenataxwasimposedontheentirecolonyin1632,butWinthropwasabletoquietfears.IssueofGovernanceIn1634,theissueofgovernancearoseagain,andagroupheadedbyThomasDudleydemandedtoseethecharterthathadbeenkepthiddenfromthem.Theylearnedoftheprovisionsthatthegeneralcourtshouldmakealllaws,andthatallfreemenshouldbemembers.Thegroupdemandedthatthecharterbeenforcedtotheletter,buteventuallyreachedacompromisewithgovernorWinthrop.TheyagreedtoaGeneralCourtmadeupoftwodelegateselectedbyeachtown,theGovernor'scouncilofadvisors,andtheGovernorhimself.WhatWinthropdidnotexpectwasthat"binding"includedtheelectionofthegovernor,andDudleywaselected.WhatPuritansAre?NogrouphasplayedamorepivotalroleinshapingAmericanvaluesthantheN.E.Puritans.The17th-centuryPuritanscontributedtoAmerica'ssenseofmission,itsworkethic,anditsmoralsensibility.Fewpeople,however,havebeenasfrequentlysubjectedtocaricatureandridicule.Andparticularlyduringthe1920s,thePuritanscametosymbolizeeveryculturalcharacteristicthat"modern"Americansdespised.ThePuritanswereoftendismissedasdrably-clothedreligiouszealotsandwereeagertoimposetheirrigid"Puritanical"moralityontheworldaroundthem.

TheTruePuritansThisstereotypicalviewisalmostwhollyincorrect.Contrarytomuchpopularthinking,thePuritanswerenotsexualprudes.Althoughtheystronglycondemnedsexualrelationsoutsideofmarriage--levyingfinesorevenwhippingthosewhofornicated,committedadulteryorsodomy,orborechildrenoutsideofwedlock--theyattachedahighvaluetothemaritaltie.NordidPuritansabstainfromalcohol.Theywerenotopposedtoartisticbeauty;thePuritansvaluedpoetry.EventheassociationofthePuritanswithdrabcolorsiswrong.Theyespeciallylikedthecolorsredandblue.

TheFoundingofOtherColonies1626,TheDutchtradersboughtManhattanwith$20worthgoodsfromIndians,andnameditNewAmsterdam,butwasseizedbyDukeYork’s450soldiersin1664,andrenamedN.Y.as3rd.1633,MarylandColonyestablished:,4th.1636,RhodeIslandandConnecticut,5thand6th1638,DelawareandNewHampshire,7thand8th1653,NorthCarolina,9th1663,SouthCarolina,10th1664,NewJersey,11th1682,Pennsylvania,forpayingdebt,12th.1732,GeorgiaColonyestablishedforcriminals,13thNewEnglandColoniesNewEnglandincludedthePlymouthColony(1620,absorbedbyMassachusettsBayin1691),theMassachusettsBayColony(1630),Connecticut(1636),NewHaven(1640,andin1664toConnecticut),RhodeIsland(1636),andNewHampshire(separatedfromMassachusettsBayin1741).TheNewEnglandColoniesarebestknownasthedestinationforPuritanreligiousreformersandtheirfollowers.LateraddedVermontandMaineStates.EconomyinNewEnglandColoniesNewEnglandhasgenerallythin,stonysoil,relativelylittlelevelland,andlongwinters,makingitdifficulttomakealivingfromfarming.Turningtootherpursuits,theNewEnglandersharnessedwaterpowerandestablishedgrainmillsandsawmills.Goodstandsoftimberencouragedshipbuilding.Excellentharborspromotedtrade,andtheseabecameasourceofgreatwealth.InMassachusetts,thecodindustryalonequicklyfurnishedabasisforprosperity.SocietyinNewEnglandWiththebulkoftheearlysettlerslivinginvillagesandtownsaroundtheharbors,manyNewEnglanderscarriedonsomekindoftradeorbusiness.Commonpasturelandandwoodlotsservedtheneedsoftownspeople,whoworkedsmallfarmsnearby.Compactnessmadepossiblethevillageschool,thevillagechurchandthevillageortownhall,wherecitizensmettodiscussmattersofcommoninterest.IndustryinNewEnglandColoniesTheMassachusettsBayColonycontinuedtoexpanditscommerce.Fromthemiddleofthe17thcenturyonwarditgrewprosperous,andBostonbecameoneofAmerica'sgreatestports.Oaktimberforships'hulls,tallpinesforsparsandmasts,andpitchfortheseamsofshipscamefromtheNortheasternforests.Buildingtheirownvesselsandsailingthemtoportsallovertheworld.Bytheendofthecolonialperiod,one-thirdofallvesselsundertheBritishflagwerebuiltinNewEngland.Fish,ship'sstoresandwoodenwareswelledtheexports.

TownshipPlantingandTownMeetingLandDistributionSystemCollectiveapplicationtotheGeneralCourtRectangularshapeCompactnessUnequalDistribution(Tothosewhohath)Houselot,garden,land,commonReservedforChurch,school,andministerTownMeetingLocaldemocracyAttendedbyalladultmaleTradeinNewEnglandColoniesNewEnglandshipperssoondiscovered,too,thatrumandslaveswereprofitablecommodities.Oneofthemostenterprising--ifunsavory--tradingpracticesofthetimewastheso-called"triangulartrade."MerchantsandshipperswouldpurchaseslavesoffthecoastofAfricaforNewEnglandrum,thenselltheslavesintheWestIndieswheretheywouldbuymolassestobringhomeforsaletothelocalrumproducers.MiddleColoniesMiddleColonies,composedofPennsylvania,Delaware,NewYork,andNewJersey,wereamixofbothnorthernandsouthernfeatures,creatingauniqueenvironmentofearlysettlementbynon-EnglishEuropeans,mostlyDutchandGerman,whereEnglishmenandwomencomposedthesmallestminority.Acombinationofbothurbanandrurallifestylesmadeitmorecosmopolitan,religiouslypluralistic,andsociallytolerantwithinacommercialatmosphere.Theywereallatonetimeproprietarycolonies.SocietyinMiddleColoniesSocietyinthemiddlecolonieswasfarmorevaried,cosmopolitanandtolerantthaninNewEngland.Inmanyways,PennsylvaniaandDelawareowedtheirinitialsuccesstoWilliamPenn.TheheartofthecolonywasPhiladelphia,acitysoontobeknownforitsbroad,tree-shadedstreets,substantialbrickandstonehouses,andbusydocks.Bytheendofthecolonialperiod,30,000peoplelivedthere,representingmanylanguages,creedsandtrades.TheirtalentforsuccessfulbusinessenterprisemadethecityoneofthethrivingcentersofcolonialAmerica.

IndustryandFarminginMiddleColoniesThoughtheQuakersdominatedinPhiladelphia,elsewhereinPennsylvaniaotherswerewellrepresented.Germansbecamethecolony'smostskillfulfarmers.Important,too,werecottageindustriessuchasweaving,shoemaking,cabinetmakingandothercrafts.PennsylvaniawasalsotheprincipalgatewayintotheNewWorldfortheScots-Irish,whomovedintothecolonyintheearly18thcentury."Boldandindigentstrangers,"theyhatedtheEnglishandweresuspiciousofallgovernment.TheScots-Irishtendedtosettleinthebackcountry,wheretheyclearedlandandlivedbyhuntingandsubsistencefarming.

DutchInfluenceinMiddleColoniesNewYorkbestillustratedthepolyglotnatureofAmerica.By1646thepopulationalongtheHudsonRiverincludedDutch,French,Danes,Norwegians,Swedes,English,Scots,Irish,Germans,Poles,Bohemians,PortugueseandItalians.TheDutchcontinuedtoexerciseanimportantsocialandeconomicinfluenceontheNewYorkregionlongafterthefallofNewNetherlandandtheirintegrationintotheBritishcolonialsystem.Theirsharp-stepped,gableroofsbecameapermanentpartofthecity'sarchitecture,andtheirmerchantsgaveManhattanmuchofitsoriginalbustling,commercialatmosphere.TheSouthernColoniesVirginia,Maryland,NorthandSouthCarolina,andGeorgia,predominantlyruralsouthernsettlements.Bythelate17thcentury,Virginia'sandMaryland'seconomicandsocialstructurerestedonthegreatplantersandtheyeomanfarmers.Theplantersofthetidewaterregion,supportedbyslavelabor,heldmostofthepoliticalpowerandthebestland.Theybuiltgreathouses,adoptedanaristocraticwayoflifeandkeptintouchasbesttheycouldwiththeworldofcultureoverseas.YeomanFarmersinSouthernColonies

Atthesametime,yeomanfarmers,whoworkedsmallertractsofland,satinpopularassembliesandfoundtheirwayintopoliticaloffice.Theiroutspokenindependencewasaconstantwarningtotheoligarchyofplantersnottoencroachtoofarupontherightsoffreemen.TheSouthernColoniesCharlestonbecametheleadingportandtradingcenteroftheSouth.Therethe