信號(hào)系統(tǒng)與電子線(xiàn)路-復(fù)試專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)

TechnicalEnglishForInformationScienceandElectronicEngineeringUnit8OpticalCommunicationsPartIElectromagneticSpectrum3NewWordsperusal精讀，細(xì)讀gigahertz吉赫（109Hz）impress印，銘刻，加載directionality方向性resonator諧振器tTerahertz特赫（1012Hz）atwill隨心所欲incur招致，蒙受，引起synchronous同步的interleave交織throughput吞吐量nonlinearity非線(xiàn)性femtosecond毫微微秒(1015sec)coherent相干的obviate避免，使成為不必要micron微米miniature小型的miniaturization小型化counterpart對(duì)等物，對(duì)等的角色cladding光纖包層4NewWordsproximity接近，親近fruition結(jié)果實(shí)，成就photon光子granular顆粒狀bias偏置benign良性的51VariousobservationsrelatingtothepotentialofopticaltechnologyfortransmissionofinformationcanbemadefromperusalofthefrequencylineofTable8.1.與用于信息傳輸?shù)墓鈱W(xué)技術(shù)的潛力有關(guān)的仔細(xì)研究表8.1中的頻率表可以看到各種用于信息傳輸?shù)墓鈱W(xué)技術(shù)的潛力。61Table8.1Afrequencylinewhichgivesthewavelengthsλ,thefrequenciesν,andthephotonenergyεpforthevariousregionsofthefrequencyspectrumNameaudioradioμwavemmwaveIROPT/UVx-rayGammaλ300km300m30cm3mm30μm0.3μm30?0.03?ν(Hz)10310610910111013101510171020εp3μeV0.3meV30meV3eV300eV0.3MeV72Theinformationratesinwhichoneisinterestedinconventional“modern-day”communicationssystemsgenerallycorrespondtoaudioratesintelephonesystems,radioratesincommercialbroadcastsystems,ordigitaltelevisionratesinthemostadvancedvideodistributionsystems.1

…

的信息傳播速率通常相應(yīng)于

…“現(xiàn)代”常規(guī)通信系統(tǒng)中人們所感興趣的信息傳輸速率通常對(duì)應(yīng)于電話(huà)系統(tǒng)中的音頻，商用廣播系統(tǒng)中的無(wú)線(xiàn)電頻率，或是在最先進(jìn)的視頻節(jié)目分配系統(tǒng)中的數(shù)字電視信息速率。82TheseratesaregenerallybelowseveralGHz.Ifoneweretotransmitsuchinformationwithoutimpressingitonanopticalcarrierbutinsteadonaradiofrequency(RF)carrierabithigherthanthemaximumrate,thetransmissionwavelengthoftheRFcarrierwouldbecentimetersorlarger.2

如果要傳輸這樣的信息而不將它加載于光纖上，而是加載在略高于最大速率的射頻載波上，則此射頻載波就會(huì)是厘米波或波長(zhǎng)再長(zhǎng)一些的波。

92Therecan,however,begreatadvantagestousingopticalcarriers.Anobviousoneisthelowlossanddirectionalityoftheopticalfiber.Clearly,thecarriermusthaveahigherratethantheinformationrate.Amajorprinciplethathasappearedincommunicationssystemshasbeenthatthehigherthefrequency,thegreaterthetechnicalcomplexity.Microwavesarehardertohandlethanareradiowaves.通信系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)基本原則是102Aswavelengthsdecreasetoapproachthesizeofcircuitcomponents,circuitelementsarenolongerlumped,andleadscanactasreflectivecomponentsand/orantennasandlumpedelementsaselectromagneticresonators.3

隨著……,電路單元就不再是集總的，導(dǎo)線(xiàn)可起到反射元件以及（或）天線(xiàn)的作用，集總單元?jiǎng)t成為電磁諧振器。

112Thishasgenerallymeantthatsendingmoreinformationwouldcostmoreandtherewasthereforeacostperbit/sec(bps)oftransmittedinformationinthesensethatgoingtoahigherinformationraterequiresahigherfrequency.Thus,thefirstobservationfromthefrequencylinewouldbethat,foropticalcarriers,whichhavefrequenciesinthehundredsofTHz,informationbandwidthisinsomesensefree.因此在較高的信息率要求較高的頻率這層意義上，要考慮傳輸信息的每個(gè)bps成本問(wèn)題信息的帶寬在某種意義上是免費(fèi)的122Thatistosay,theopticalwavelengthissosmallcomparedtomostdevicesthatthetechnologyhaschangeddrasticallyfromelectricalandmicrowave.Onceweassumethatwehavesuchtechnology,nomatterhowhighaninformationrateonemightwantitwillnotbenecessarytochangethecarrier,asthecarrierfrequencyishigherthananyrealisticinformationratecoulde.所用技術(shù)與電和微波有根本的不同無(wú)論信息率有多高，再也沒(méi)有必要改變載波了132Bandwidthisnotcompletelyfree,though,asencodersanddecodersmustnecessarilyoperateattheinformationrate,butmuchoftherestofthesystemmustnecessarilyhandleonlythecarrierplusmodulation.而系統(tǒng)其余部分大都只需要處理載波和調(diào)制142Ifacomponentcanhandleafrequencyof5×1014Hz,aninformationshiftinthatfrequencyofapartinathousand(correspondingtoa500GHzinformationrate)willhavelittleornoeffectondeviceperformance.在這個(gè)頻率，信息偏移千分之一（相應(yīng)于500吉赫茲的信息率）對(duì)器件的性能將沒(méi)有什么影響

152Therefore,oncethesystemisalreadysetup,onecanupgradesystemspeedmoreorlessatwillwithoutthekindofcostsincurredbychangingtheelectromagneticcarrierinconventionalsystems.就可以隨意升級(jí)系統(tǒng)而不會(huì)涉及常規(guī)系統(tǒng)中改變電磁載波所需付出的那種代價(jià)163Aconsequenceofthesizeoftheopticalbandwidthisthattheopticalcarriercanbeusedtocarrymanydifferenttelephoneconversations,televisionprograms,etc.,simultaneously.Theprocessbywhichthisisgenerallycarriedout(atleastinsynchronousformat)iscalledtimedivisionmultiplexing(TDM).通常實(shí)現(xiàn)這種同時(shí)傳輸多路信息的過(guò)程（至少以同步格式實(shí)現(xiàn)）稱(chēng)為時(shí)分復(fù)用173Theideaisthat,ifonewishestomultiplex16differentchannelseachtransmittingat1Mbps,onecouldperformthisbydividingeachbitperiodby16andtheninterleavingthebitsintoacomposite1μsecbit(1Mbpsrate)whichactuallycarries16bitsofinformationonit.4

其原理是：如果要復(fù)用16個(gè)1Mbps的不同信道，可將每一比特所占時(shí)間除以16，然后將16個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)比特交織成一個(gè)持續(xù)1微秒的復(fù)合比特（即比特率為1Mbps），這一復(fù)合比特實(shí)際上帶有16比特的信息。183Withtelephoneconversationsrepresentingarateof64kbps,the100sofTbpsbandwidthoftheopticalcarrierholdsgreatpromiseforTDM.Ofcourse,TDMisnottheonlymultiplexingschemeonecanimagineusing.Onecouldimagineimpressinganumberofsubcarriers,spacedbyperhapssomeGHz,ontotheopticalcarrier.使實(shí)現(xiàn)TDM有了極大的可能也許相隔幾個(gè)吉赫茲193Eachofthesecarrierscouldthenbemodulatedataninformationrateandthenre-separatedaccordingtotheirdifferentcarrierwavelengthsattheoutput.Suchaschemeisreferredtoaswavelength-divisionmultiplexing(WDM)orsubcarriermodulation,dependingontheimplementation.在輸出端按其不同的載波波長(zhǎng)重新分離203Manyofthepresent-dayschemesforincreasinglinkthroughputwithincreasingtrafficinvolvecombiningmanyTDMsignalsontoWDMcarriers.Infact,thelimitationondensityofWDMturnsouttobenotbandwidthbutpower.Thatis,eachchannelrequiressomeamountofpower.Themorechannels,then,thehigherthepowerrequirement.涉及到將許多TDM信號(hào)與WDM載波結(jié)合的技術(shù)213Atsomepowerlevel,opticalfibernonlinearityesimportant,andthisnonlinearitytendstomixthesignalstogether.Thereispresentlymucheffortgoingonintryingtofindwaystoequalizesuchnonlinearities.目前正在進(jìn)行大量的研究，努力尋求對(duì)這種非線(xiàn)性的均衡處理。224Thehighcarrierfrequencyoftheopticalcarrieralsohasdrawbacks,especiallyasitrelates,throughthespeedoflight,totheopticalwavelength.Theopticalperiodcorrespondstolessthantwofemtoseconds.Thismeansthatphasecontrolcorrespondstomanipulationofsub-femtosecondperiodsoftime.當(dāng)它通過(guò)光速與光的波長(zhǎng)相聯(lián)系時(shí)尤其如此毫微微秒（1015秒）234Althoughtechniquestodosuchareemerging,theyarecomplicated–muchmorecomplicatedthanmanipulatingmicrowaveorradiofrequencywaveforms.Forthisreason,coherentopticalreceptionisstillalaboratorytechnology.Thedevelopmentoftherareearth-dopedopticalfiberamplifierseemstohaveobviatedtheneedforcoherenttechniquesinmunicationasfarasimprovedsignal-to-noiseratiogoes.隨著信噪比的提高，看來(lái)稀土元素?fù)诫s光纖放大器的發(fā)展使通信中不再需要用相干技術(shù)。245Theshortperiodoftheopticalwavealsoimpliesashortwavelengthcenteredaroundhalfofamicron.Thesmallnessoftheopticalwavelength,therefore,allowsfortheminiaturizationoftransmitandreceivemodules,whichshouldallowconsiderablereductioninsize,weight,andcostofopticalcommunicationsystemswithrespecttomicrowave/radiowavecounterparts.5

光波波長(zhǎng)之小使發(fā)射和接收模塊得以小型化，這就使光通信系統(tǒng)的尺寸、重量以至價(jià)格與相應(yīng)的微波、無(wú)線(xiàn)電波通信系統(tǒng)相比都大為降低。255Inthecaseofmicrowaves,thehigherthepackagingdensityofopenmicrowavechannels,theworsethecrosstalk.Nomatterhowtightlyonepacksfiber,ontheotherhand,thecrosstalkisessentiallyzeroifthecladdingisproperlydesigned.Thisleadstothecharacteristicthatfiberisanexcellentmediumforspacedivisionmultiplexing(SDM)–thatis,packaginganumberofchannelswithdifferentinformationstreamsincloseproximity.開(kāi)放的微波信道排列的密度愈高，竄音就愈嚴(yán)重將多個(gè)傳輸不同信息流的信道緊密地封裝在一起266Althoughalltheadvantagesofcoherentopticalcommunicationsystemshaveyettobebroughttofruition,anotherpropertyofopticalradiationhasmadetoday’sopticalcommunicationsystemsnotdesirableforapplications.6Theimportantpropertyhereisthatofphotonenergy.雖然相干光通信系統(tǒng)的所有優(yōu)點(diǎn)還有待于落實(shí)在具體成果中，光輻射的另一性質(zhì)卻使目前的光通信系統(tǒng)不利于應(yīng)用。276AsisseenfromTable8.1,thephotonenergyrangesfromroughly2eVtoroughly4eV.Thiswouldseemtobeanadvantageinefficiency.However,thereisapenaltytobepaidforhavingsuchphotonenergy.Becausesinglephotonsaredetectable,theemission/receptionprocessmusttakeonagranularnature.具有這樣的光子能量需要付出高昂的代價(jià)286Asiswell-known,eveninasteadyrain,theprobabilityofaraindroplanding(asafunctionoftime)followsaPoissondistribution,implyingthatthereisraindropbunching.7

如所周知，即使在一場(chǎng)穩(wěn)定的降雨中，雨滴落地的概率（作為時(shí)間的函數(shù)）服從Poisson分布，意味著有成串的雨滴。296

Araindropwouldratherfallrightaftertheonebefore.Raindropsareimpatientanddon’tliketowait.Inmuchthesamemanner,alaserlikestospitbunchesofphotonsevenunderconstantbiascurrent.Suchbehaviorleadstoatypeofnoisecommonlyreferredtoasshotnoiseorquantumnoise.即使在恒定偏置電流條件下，激光也發(fā)出光子束306Ontheemission/detectionprocess,whichturnsouttobequiteseriousforanalogcommunicationsalthoughmuchmorebenigninthedigitalcase.在發(fā)射/檢測(cè)過(guò)程中，這一問(wèn)題對(duì)于模擬通信變得相當(dāng)嚴(yán)重，盡管在數(shù)字通信中要輕微得多317Opticalquantumdetectorscanoperateatroomtemperature,assinglephotonsaremeasurable.Therefore,opticaldirectdetectioncanbequitesensitiveifshotnoise-limited.Directdetection,further,istotallycompatiblewithintensitymodulationschemes–schemesinwhichthesourceisessentiallyjustturnedonandoff.8Suchmodulationschemesaretheeasiesttoimplement.進(jìn)而言之，直接檢測(cè)與強(qiáng)度調(diào)制方案完全兼容，在這些方案中光源實(shí)質(zhì)上只是簡(jiǎn)單地接通和斷開(kāi)。327Whencoupledwithlight’sshortwavelengthwhichallowsforminiaturesourcesanddetectorsandmicron-sizedwaveguides,directdetectionschemeshaveallowedforsmall,lightweight,highbandwidthsystemswhicharecompetitiveinmanyareas,mostnotablytothepresentmunicationstransmission,althoughamyriadofotherapplicationsarecontinuallyopeningup.9光波長(zhǎng)很小，可以用小型的光源和檢測(cè)器以及微米級(jí)的波導(dǎo)，于是用直接檢測(cè)方案可實(shí)現(xiàn)在許多領(lǐng)域具有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的小巧的寬帶系統(tǒng)。特別引人注目的是當(dāng)前在電信傳輸中的應(yīng)用，盡管無(wú)數(shù)其他應(yīng)用也在不斷涌現(xiàn)出來(lái)。337Asmentionedpreviously,theseapplicationshavetendedtoopenupmoreslowlythanoriginallypredicted,ascostwasreallynotmuchofaconsiderationinmunications,whereequipmentcostsareswampedbyotherconsiderations.10如前所述，（線(xiàn)路）成本并非電信系統(tǒng)中真正重要的考慮因素，通信設(shè)備的成本主要受到其他因素的制約，因此這些應(yīng)用比預(yù)料的出現(xiàn)得慢。

347Withconsumerelectronics,oneneednotworryaboutrightofwayorinstallation.Atpresent,thecostofconnectingtopersonalcomputersafewmetersfromeachother

opticallyissoexpensivethatfiberhasnotyetcometotheconsumermarket.用光技術(shù)將相距幾米的個(gè)人計(jì)算機(jī)連接起來(lái)357Thehighcostofthelinkinsuchacase,though,isnotfundamentalbutmorehistorical.Present-daydevelopmentsinmillimetercoreplasticisanexampleofamuchcheapertechnologythan,forexample,glassfiber.Thecostsofcomponentstogointofiberlinksaswellas

packagingcostsarepresentlybeingreducedandnewapplicationsareopeningup.PartIIOpticalFiber37NewWordscore纖芯diameter直徑confinement限制waveguide波導(dǎo)graded-index漸變（梯度）折射率step-index階躍（突變）折射率singlemodefiber單模光纖dispersion色散multimodefibers多模光纖polarization偏振，極化crystal晶體splice結(jié)合，焊接melt熔化doped摻雜質(zhì)的preform預(yù)制品flexible柔順的，靈活的bundle捆，包扎attenuation衰減repeater中繼器，轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)器circa(c.,ca.,cir.circ.)大約38NewWordsduct管道immune免疫的，不受影響的wiretapping搭線(xiàn)竊聽(tīng)concentric同心的tap-proof防竊聽(tīng)的ignition燃燒，點(diǎn)火strain應(yīng)力hydrophone水聽(tīng)器seismic地震的sonar聲納towedstreamer拖曳飄帶式水聽(tīng)器陣gyroscope陀螺儀co-located位于同一地方的endoscope內(nèi)窺鏡，內(nèi)診鏡invasive入侵的，侵略性的erbium鉺cylindrical圓柱形的dielectric介電的，電介質(zhì)的abrupt突然的indexofrefraction折射率39NewWordsnormal垂直的，法線(xiàn)的aperture孔徑，光圈refractive折射的profile輪廓，分布parabolic拋物線(xiàn)的speckle散斑，斑點(diǎn)coherent相干的transverse橫向的evanescent漸逝的micron微米401Anopticalfiber(orfiber)isaglassorplasticfiberdesignedtoguidelightalongitslengthbyconfiningasmuchlightaspossibleinapropagatingform.1Infiberswithlargecorediameter,theconfinementisbasedontotalinternalreflection.Insmallerdiametercorefibers,(widelyusedformostcommunicationlinkslongerthan200meters)theconfinementreliesonestablishingawaveguide.光纖是一種玻璃的或塑料的纖維，用來(lái)沿其長(zhǎng)度方向引導(dǎo)光，把盡可能多的光限于一種傳播形式。411Fiberopticsistheoverlapofappliedscienceandengineeringconcernedwithsuchopticalfibers.Opticalfibersarewidelyusedinfiber-opticcommunication,whichpermitstransmissionoverlongerdistancesandathigherdataratesthanotherformsofwiredandwirelesscommunications.Theyarealsousedtoformsensors,andinavarietyofotherapplications.數(shù)據(jù)速率比有線(xiàn)和無(wú)線(xiàn)通信的其它形式更高422Thetermopticalfibercoversarangeofdifferentdesignsincludinggraded-indexopticalfibersandstep-indexopticalfibers.Basedonthewayinwhichlightsarepropagatedthoughthefiber,therearesinglemodefibersincludingnonzerodispersion-shiftedfibersanddispersion-shiftedfibers,andmultimodefibers.漸變折射率光纖和階躍折射率光纖非零色散位移光纖和色散位移光纖432Afibermayeitherbesingle-modeormultimode,dictatedbythespecificdesignandthewavelengthofthelightpropagatinginthefiber.2Becauseofthemechanicalpropertiesofthemorecommonglassopticalfibers,specialmethodsofsplicingfibersandofconnectingthemtootherequipmentareneeded.一根光纖根據(jù)其設(shè)計(jì)和在其中傳播的光的波長(zhǎng)，可以是單模的也可以是多模的。

需要用特別的方法熔接光纖以及把它們連接到其它設(shè)備442Manufactureofopticalfibersisbasedonpartiallymeltingachemicallydopedpreformandpullingtheflowingmaterialonadrawtower.3Fibersarebuiltintodifferentkindsofcablesdependingonhowtheywillbeused.光纖制造過(guò)程是將化學(xué)摻雜的預(yù)制棒部分融化，并在一個(gè)抽絲塔上拉長(zhǎng)流動(dòng)的原料。453Opticalfibercommunication

Opticalfibercanbeusedasamediumformunicationandnetworkingbecauseitisflexibleandcanbebundledascables.Itisespeciallyadvantageousforlong-distancecommunications,becauselightpropagatesthroughthefiberwithlittleattenuationcomparedtoelectricalcables.Thisallowslongdistancestobespannedwithfewrepeaters.由于光纖的柔韌性以及可捆扎成光纜463Additionally,thelightsignalspropagatinginthefibercanbemodulatedatratesashighas40Gbps,andeachfibercancarrymanyindependentchannels,eachbyadifferentwavelengthoflight(wavelength-division-multiplexWDM).4

此外在光纖中傳播的光信號(hào)可以調(diào)制到高達(dá)40Gbps的速率，每一根光纖能作為許多獨(dú)立的信道，每個(gè)信道用不同波長(zhǎng)的光來(lái)調(diào)制（波分復(fù)用）。473Intotal,asinglefiber-opticcablecancarrydataatratesashighas14.4Pbps(circa14millionGbps).Overshortdistances,suchasnetworkingwithinabuilding,fibersavesspaceincableductsbecauseasinglefibercancarrymuchmoredatathanasingleelectricalcable.總體上，單根光纜可攜帶數(shù)據(jù)高達(dá)14.4Pbps（大約1400萬(wàn)Gbps）483Fiberisalsoimmunetoelectricalinterference,whichpreventscross-talkbetweensignalsindifferentcablesandpickupofenvironmentalnoise.5

光纖也不會(huì)受電干擾的影響，防止了不同光纜中信號(hào)之間的串話(huà)以及環(huán)境噪聲的介入。493Also,wiretappingismoredifficultcomparedtoelectricalconnections,andthereareconcentricdualcorefibersthataresaidtobetap-proof.Becausetheyarenon-electrical,fibercablescanbridgeveryhighelectricalpotentialdifferencesandcanbeusedinenvironmentswhereexplosivefumesarepresent,withoutdangerofignition.6

因?yàn)楣饫w是不用電的，它能橫跨很高的電位差，能用于存在爆炸煙霧的環(huán)境下而沒(méi)有燃燒的危險(xiǎn)。504Althoughfiberscanbemadeoutoftransparentplastic,glass,oracombinationofthetwo,thefibersusedinlong-distancemunicationsapplicationsarealwaysglass,becauseoftheloweropticalattenuation.Bothmulti-modeandsingle-modefibersareusedincommunications,withmulti-modefiberusedmostlyforshortdistances(upto500m),andsingle-modefiberusedforlongerdistancelinks.光纖可用透明塑料、玻璃、或兩者的結(jié)合制成514Becauseofthetightertolerancesrequiredtocouplelightintoandbetweensingle-modefibers(corediameterabout10micrometers),single-modetransmitters,receivers,amplifiersandothercomponentsaregenerallymoreexpensivethanmulti-modecomponents.7

由于將光耦合到單模光纖或在單模光纖之間耦合（纖芯直徑大約為10微米）的允差較小，單模發(fā)射器、接受器、放大器和其它元件的價(jià)格通常比多模元件的貴。525Fiberopticsensors

Opticalfiberscanbeusedassensorstomeasurestrain,temperature,pressureandotherparameters.Thesmallsizeandthefactthatnoelectricalpowerisneededattheremotelocationgivethefiberopticsensoradvantagestoconventionalelectricalsensorincertainapplications.小的尺寸以及在偏遠(yuǎn)位置不需要電力536Opticalfibersareusedashydrophonesforseismicorsonarapplications.Hydrophonesystemswithmorethan100sensorsperfibercablehavebeendeveloped.Hydrophonesensorsystemsareusedbytheoilindustryaswellasafewcountries’navies.Bothbottommountedhydrophonearraysandtowedstreamersystemsareinuse.TheGermancompanySennheiserdevelopedamicrophoneworkingwithalaserandopticalfibers.

船底裝有水聽(tīng)器陣列和拖纜系統(tǒng)已投入使用547Opticalfibersensorsfortemperatureandpressurehavebeendevelopedfordownholemeasurementinoilwells.Thefiberopticsensoriswellsuitedforthisenvironmentasitisfunctioningattemperaturestoohighforsemiconductorsensors.

因?yàn)樗芄ぷ髟趯?duì)半導(dǎo)體傳感器而言太高的溫度下558AnotheruseoftheopticalfiberasasensoristheopticalgyroscopewhichisinuseintheBoeing767andinsomecarmodels(fornavigationpurposes)andtheuseinhydrogenmicrosensors.

光學(xué)陀螺569Fiber-opticsensorshavebeendevelopedtomeasureco-locatedtemperatureandstrainsimultaneouslywithveryhighaccuracy.Thisisparticularlyusefultoacquireinformationfromsmallcomplexstructures.以很高的精確度同時(shí)測(cè)量同一點(diǎn)的溫度和張力5710Otherusesofopticalfibers

Fibersarewidelyusedinilluminationapplications.Theyareusedaslightguidesinmedicalandotherapplicationswherebrightlightneedstobeshoneonatargetwithoutaclearline-of-sightpath.Insomebuildings,opticalfibersareusedtoroutesunlightfromtherooftootherpartsofthebuilding.Opticalfiberilluminationisalsousedfordecorativeapplications,includingsigns,art,andartificialChristmastrees.

需要明光照亮目標(biāo)而不需要一個(gè)清晰的直線(xiàn)路徑5811Opticalfiberisalsousedinimagingoptics.Acoherentbundleoffibersisused,sometimesalongwithlenses,foralong,thinimagingdevicecalledanendoscope,whichisusedtoviewobjectsthroughasmallhole.Medicalendoscopesareusedforminimallyinvasiveexploratoryorsurgicalprocedures(endoscopy).Industrialendoscopesareusedforinspectinganythinghardtoreach,suchasjetengineinteriors.

醫(yī)學(xué)內(nèi)窺鏡用于微創(chuàng)探測(cè)或外科手術(shù)（內(nèi)窺鏡檢查法）5912Anopticalfiberdopedwithcertainrare-earthelementssuchaserbiumcanbeusedasthegainmediumofalaseroropticalamplifier.Rare-earthdopedopticalfiberscanbeusedtoprovidesignalamplificationbysplicingashortsectionofdopedfiberintoaregular(undoped)opticalfiberline.摻雜某些稀土元素如鉺通過(guò)一小段摻雜光纖熔接到正常（非摻雜）光纖6012Thedopedfiberisopticallypumpedwithasecondlaserwavelengththatiscoupledintothelineinadditiontothesignalwave.8Bothwavelengthsoflightaretransmittedthroughthedopedfiber,whichtransfersenergyfromthesecondpumpwavelengthtothesignalwave.Theprocessthatcausestheamplificationisstimulatedemission.

除了信號(hào)波外，耦合到光纖線(xiàn)路的另一個(gè)激光波長(zhǎng)被泵浦（注入）到摻雜介質(zhì)的光纖中。6113Opticalfibercanbeusedtosupplyalowlevelofpower(aroundonewatt)toelectronicssituatedinadifficultelectricalenvironment.Examplesofthisareelectronicsinhigh-poweredantennaelementsandmeasurementdevicesusedinhighvoltagetransmissionequipment.

光纖可用于給處于用電困難環(huán)境的電子設(shè)備提供低的功率（約一瓦特）6214PrincipleofoperationAnopticalfiberisacylindricaldielectricwaveguidethattransmitslightalongitsaxis,bytheprocessoftotalinternalreflection.Thefiberconsistsofacoresurroundedbyacladdinglayer(Figure8.1).Toconfinetheopticalsignalinthecore,therefractiveindexofthecoremustbegreaterthanthatofthecladding.光纖是一個(gè)圓柱形的電介質(zhì)波導(dǎo)，通過(guò)全內(nèi)反射沿其軸傳播光光纖由一個(gè)被包層包圍的纖芯組成6314Theboundarybetweenthecoreandcladdingmayeitherbeabrupt,instep-indexfiber,orgradual,ingraded-indexfiber.

Figure8.1Atypicalopticalfiberconsistingofatransparentmaterialofrefractiveindexn1andsurroundedbyacladdingofaslightlylowerrefractiveindexn2.Mostofthepropagatingenergyisconfinedtothecoreregionandthefielddecaysexponentiallyinthecladding.Cladding(n2)Core(n1)6415Multimodefiber

Fiberwithlarge(greaterthan10μm)corediametermaybeanalyzedbygeometricoptics.Suchfiberiscalledmultimodefiber,fromtheelectromagneticanalysis.Inastep-indexmultimodefiber(Figure8.2),raysoflightareguidedalongthefibercorebytotalinternalreflection.由于全內(nèi)反射光線(xiàn)沿光纖纖芯傳播6515Figure8.2Astep-indexmultimodefiberinwhichtherefractiveindexinthecoreisconstant.Lightraysimpingingonthecore-claddinginterfaceatananglegreaterthanthecriticalanglearetrappedinsidethecoreofthewaveguide.Insuchafiberraystravelingatlargeranglestotheaxishavetotraversealargerpathandhencetakealongertimethanthoserayswhichpropagatewithlesseranglestotheaxis.Thisleadstoasubstantialamountofbroadeninginapulsepropagatingthroughthefiber.xn(x)qCore:n1Cladding:n2(<n1)z6615Raysthatmeetthecore-claddingboundaryatahighangle(measuredrelativetoalinenormaltotheboundary),greaterthanthecriticalangleforthisboundary,arecompletelyreflected.9

當(dāng)光線(xiàn)射到纖芯和包層之間界面的角度（與垂直于邊界的直線(xiàn)之間的夾角）大于臨界角時(shí)，光線(xiàn)被完全反射。

6715Thecriticalangle(minimumanglefortotalinternalreflection)isdeterminedbythedifferenceinindexofrefractionbetweenthecoreandcladdingmaterials.Raysthatmeettheboundaryatalowanglearerefractedfromthecoreintothecladding,anddonotconveylightandhenceinformationalongthefiber.10

以小角度射到分界面上的光線(xiàn)被折射，從纖芯進(jìn)入包層，它們并不沿著光纖傳輸光，因而也不傳輸信息。6815Thecriticalangledeterminestheacceptanceangleofthefiber,oftenreportedasanumericalaperture.Ahighnumericalapertureallowslighttopropagatedownthefiberinraysbothclosetotheaxisandatvariousangles,allowingefficientcouplingoflightintothefiber.11

大的數(shù)值孔徑使光能以接近于軸線(xiàn)的方式沿光纖傳播，也能以不同的角度傳輸，從而使得光能有效地耦合進(jìn)入光纖。

6915However,thishighnumericalapertureincreasestheamountofdispersionasraysatdifferentangleshavedifferentpathlengthsandthereforetakedifferenttimestotraversethefiber.12Alownumericalaperturemaythereforebedesirable.

然而，大的數(shù)值孔徑增加了色散的總量，因?yàn)橐圆煌嵌葌鞑サ墓饩€(xiàn)具有不同的光程長(zhǎng)度，因而化了不同的時(shí)間穿過(guò)光纖。7016Inagraded-indexfiber(Figure8.3),theindexofrefractioninthecoredecreasescontinuouslybetweentheaxisandthecladding.Thiscauseslightraystobendsmoothlyastheyapproachthecladding,ratherthanreflectingabruptlyfromthecore-claddingboundary.這使得光線(xiàn)到達(dá)包層時(shí)是平滑地彎曲，而不是在纖芯包層邊界上突然反射7116Theresultingcurvedpathsreducemulti-pathdispersionbecausehighanglerayspassmorethroughthelower-indexperipheryofthecore,ratherthanthehigh-indexcenter.Theindexprofileischosentominimizethedifferenceinaxialpropagationspeedsofthevariousraysinthefiber.Thisidealindexprofileisveryclosetoaparabolicrelationshipbetweentheindexandthedistancefromtheaxi