國(guó)外組織行為學(xué)課件 皮爾森 ch03

Chapter3Perception,Attribution,andDiversityCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectivesDefineperceptionanddiscusssomeofthegeneralfactorsthatinfluenceperception.ExplainsocialidentitytheoryandBruner’smodeloftheperceptualprocess.Describethemainbiasesinpersonperception.Describehowpeopleformattributionsaboutthecausesofbehaviour.Discussvariousbiasesinattribution.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)Discusstheconceptsofworkforcediversityandvaluingdiversity.Discusshowracial,ethnic,gender,andagestereotypesaffectorganizationalbehaviourandwhatorganizationscandotomanagediversity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)Definetrustperceptionsandperceivedorganizationalsupportanddescribeorganizationalsupporttheory.Discusspersonperceptionandperceptualbiasesinhumanresources.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatIsPerception?

Theprocessofinterpretingthemessagesofoursensestoprovideorderandmeaningtotheenvironment.Peoplebasetheiractionsontheinterpretationofrealitythattheirperceptualsystemprovides,ratherthanonrealityitself.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ComponentsofPerceptionPerceptionhasthreecomponents:AperceiverAtargetthatisbeingperceivedSomesituationalcontextinwhichtheperceptionisoccurringEachcomponentinfluencestheperceiver’simpressionorinterpretationofthetarget.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.FactorsthatInfluencePerceptionCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ThePerceiverPastexperiencesleadtheperceivertodevelopexpectationsthataffectcurrentperceptions.Needsunconsciouslyinfluenceperceptionsbycausingustoperceivewhatwewishtoperceive.Emotions,suchasanger,happiness,orfear,caninfluenceourperceptions.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptualDefenceThetendencyfortheperceptualsystemtodefendtheperceiveragainstunpleasantemotions.Peopleoften“seewhattheywanttosee”and“hearwhattheywanttohear.”O(jiān)urperceptualsystemworkstoensurewedonotseeorhearthingsthatarethreatening.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheTargetAmbiguoustargetsareespeciallysusceptibletointerpretationandtheadditionofmeaning.Perceivershaveaneedtoresolveambiguities.Theperceiverdoesnotorcannotusealltheinformationprovidedbythetarget.Areductioninambiguitymightnotbeaccompaniedbygreateraccuracy.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheSituationPerceptionoccursinsomesituationalcontext,andthiscontextcanaffectwhatisperceived.Themostimportanteffectthatthesituationcanhaveistoaddinformationaboutthetarget.Theperceptionofatargetcanchangewiththesituationevenwhentheperceiverandtargetremainthesame.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialIdentityTheoryPeopleformperceptionsofthemselvesbasedontheircharacteristicsandmembershipsinsocialcategories.Oursenseofselfiscomposedofapersonalidentityandasocialidentity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialIdentityTheory(continued)Personalidentityisbasedonouruniquecharacteristics(e.g.,interests).Socialidentityisbasedonourperceptionthatwebelongtovarioussocialgroups(e.g.,gender).Personalandsocialidentitieshelpusanswerthequestion:“WhoamI?”Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialIdentityTheory(continued)Weperceiveourselvesandothersasembodyingthemosttypicalattributesofacategoryorwhatarecalled“prototypes.”Socialidentitiesarerelationalandcomparative.Peopletendtoperceivemembersoftheirownsocialcategoriesinmorepositiveandfavourableways.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Bruner’sModelofthePerceptualProcessWhentheperceiverencountersanunfamiliartarget,theperceiverisveryopentotheinformationalcuesinthetargetandthesituation.Theperceiverwillactivelyseekoutcuestoresolveambiguity.Astheperceiverencounterssomefamiliarcues,acrudecategorizationofthetargetismade.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Bruner’sModelofthePerceptualProcess(continued)Thesearchforcuesthenbecomeslessopenandmoreselective.Theperceiverwillsearchforcuesthatconfirmthecategorizationofthetarget.Asthecategorizationbecomesstronger,theperceiverwillignoreorevendistortcuesthatviolateinitialperceptions.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Bruner’sModelofthePerceptualProcess:AnExampleCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionisSelectivePerceiversdonotusealloftheavailablecues,andthosetheyusearegivenspecialemphasis.Perceptionisefficientbutthiscanaidandhinderperceptualaccuracy.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptualConstancyThetendencyforthetargettobeperceivedinthesamewayovertimeandacrosssituations.“Gettingoffonthewrongfoot.”Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptualConsistencyThetendencytoselect,ignore,anddistortcuessothattheyfittogethertoformahomogenouspictureofthetarget.Westriveforconsistencyinourperceptionofpeople.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.BasicBiasesinPersonPerceptionTheimpressionsweformofothersaresusceptibletoanumberofperceptualbiases:PrimacyandrecencyeffectsRelianceoncentraltraitsImplicitpersonalitytheoriesProjectionStereotypingCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PrimacyandRecencyEffectsTherelianceonearlycuesorfirstimpressionsisknownastheprimacyeffect.Primacyoftenhasalastingimpact.Thetendencyforaperceivertorelyonrecentcuesorlastimpressionsisknownastherecencyeffect.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RelianceonCentralTraitsPeopletendtoorganizetheirperceptionsaroundcentraltraits.Centraltraitsarepersonalcharacteristicsofatargetpersonthatareofparticularinteresttoaperceiver.Centraltraitsoftenhaveaverypowerfulinfluenceonourperceptionsofothers.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RelianceonCentralTraits(continued)Physicalappearanceisacommoncentraltraitinworksettings.Conventionallyattractivepeoplefarebetterthanunattractivepeopleintermsofavarietyofjob-relatedoutcomes(e.g.,gettinghired).Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RelianceonCentralTraits(continued)Physicalheightisanobviousaspectofphysicalappearancethatisrelatedtojobperformance,promotions,andcareersuccess.Individualswhoareoverweighttendtobeevaluatednegativelyonanumberofworkplaceoutcomes.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ImplicitPersonalityTheoriesPersonaltheoriesthatpeoplehaveaboutwhichpersonalitycharacteristicsgotogether.Perhapsyouexpecthardworkingpeopletoalsobehonest,orpeopleofaverageintelligencetobemostfriendly.Ifsuchimplicittheoriesareinaccurate,theyprovideabasisformisunderstanding.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProjectionThetendencyforperceiverstoattributetheirownthoughtsandfeelingstoothers.Insomecases,projectionisanefficientandsensibleperceptualstrategy.Projectioncanleadtoperceptualdifficultiesandcanserveasaformofperceptualdefence.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.StereotypingThetendencytogeneralizeaboutpeopleinasocialcategoryandignorevariationsamongthem.Categoriesonwhichpeoplemightbaseastereotypeincluderace,age,gender,ethnicbackground,socialclass,andoccupation.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Stereotyping(continued)Therearethreespecificaspectstostereotyping:WedistinguishsomecategoryofpeopleWeassumethattheindividualsinthiscategoryhavecertaintraitsWeperceivethateveryoneinthiscategorypossessesthesetraitsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Stereotyping(continued)Peoplecanevokestereotypeswithincrediblylittleinformation.Stereotypeshelpusdevelopimpressionsofambiguoustargets.Moststereotypesareinaccurate,especiallywhenweusethemtodevelopperceptionsofspecificindividuals.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhyDoStereotypesPersist?Severalfactorsworktoreinforceinaccuratestereotypes.Evenincorrectstereotypeshelpusprocessinformationaboutothersquicklyandefficiently.Inaccuratestereotypesareoftenreinforcedbyselectiveperception.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Attribution:PerceivingCausesandMotivesAttributionistheprocessbywhichweassigncausesormotivestoexplainpeople’sbehaviour.Animportantgoalistodeterminewhethersomebehaviouriscausedbydispositionalorsituationalfactors.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.DispositionalAttributionsDispositionalattributionssuggestthatsomepersonalityorintellectualcharacteristicuniquetothepersonisresponsibleforthebehaviour.Intelligence,greed,friendliness,orlaziness.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SituationalAttributionsSituationalattributionssuggestthattheexternalsituationorenvironmentinwhichthetargetpersonexistswasresponsibleforthebehaviour.Badweather,goodluck,propertools,orpooradvice.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AttributionCuesWerelyonexternalcuesandmakeinferencesfromthesecueswhenmakingattributions.Threeimplicitquestionsguideourdecisionsastowhetherweshouldattributesomebehaviourtodispositionalorsituationalcauses.

Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AttributionCues(continued)1. Doesthepersonengageinthebehaviourregularlyandconsistently?(Consistencycues).2. Domostpeopleengageinthebehaviour,orisituniquetothisperson?(Consensuscues).3. Doesthepersonengageinthebehaviourinmanysituations,orisitdistinctivetoonesituation?(Distinctivenesscues).Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ConsistencyCuesAttributioncuesthatreflecthowconsistentlyapersonengagesinabehaviourovertime.Highconsistencybehaviourleadstodispositionalattributions.Whenbehaviouroccursinconsistently,webegintoconsidersituationalattributions.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ConsensusCuesAttributioncuesthatreflecthowaperson’sbehaviourcompareswiththatofothers.Lowconsensusbehaviourleadstodispositionalattributions.Theinformationaleffectsoflow-consensusbehaviouraremagnifiedwhentheactorisexpectedtosuffernegativeconsequencesbecauseofthedeviance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.DistinctivenessCuesAttributioncuesthatreflecttheextenttowhichapersonengagesinsomebehaviouracrossavarietyofsituations.Lowdistinctivenessbehaviourleadstoadispositionalattribution.Whenabehaviourishighlydistinctive,inthatitoccursinonlyonesituation,wearelikelytoassumethatsomeaspectofthesituationcausedthebehaviour.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AttributioninActionObserversputinformationaboutconsistency,consensus,anddistinctivenesstogethertoformattributions.Considerthreeemployeeswhoareabsentfromwork.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AttributioninAction(continued)Roshaniisabsentalot,herco-workersareseldomabsent,andshewasabsentalotinherpreviousjob.Mikaisabsentalot,herco-workersarealsoabsentalot,butshewasalmostneverabsentinherpreviousjob.Samisseldomabsent,herco-workersareseldomabsent,andshewasseldomabsentinherpreviousjob.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.CueCombinationsandResultingAttributionsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.BiasesinAttributionAlthoughobserversoftenoperateinarational,logicalmannerinformingattributionsaboutbehaviour,thisdoesnotmeanthatsuchattributionsarealwayscorrect.Threebiasesinattribution:FundamentalattributionerrorActor-observereffectSelf-servingbiasCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.FundamentalAttributionErrorThetendencytooveremphasizedispositionalexplanationsforbehaviourattheexpenseofsituationalexplanations.Weoftendiscountthestrongeffectsthatsocialcuescanhaveonbehaviour.Wefailtorealizethatobservedbehaviourisdistinctivetoaparticularsituation.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Actor-ObserverEffectThepropensityforactorsandobserverstoviewthecausesoftheactor’sbehaviourdifferently.Actorsarepronetoattributemuchoftheirownbehaviourtosituationalfactorswhileobserversaremorelikelytoinvokedispositionalcauses.Whyareactorspronetoattributemuchoftheirownbehaviourtosituationalcauses?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-ServingBiasThetendencytotakecreditforsuccessfuloutcomesandtodenyresponsibilityforfailures.Peoplewillexplaintheverysamebehaviourdifferentlyonthebasisofeventsthathappenedafterthebehaviouroccurred.Self-servingbiascanreflectintentionalself-promotionorexcusemakingoritmightreflectuniqueinformationonthepartoftheactor.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PersonPerceptionandWorkforceDiversityWorkforcediversityreferstodifferencesamongrecruitsandemployeesincharacteristics,suchasgender,race,age,religion,culturalbackground,physicalability,orsexualorientation.Theworkforceisbecomingmorediverse.Manyorganizationshavenotsuccessfullymanagedworkforcediversity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheChangingWorkplaceTheCanadianpopulationandlabourforceisbecomingincreasinglymulticulturalandmultiethinic.ThenumberofvisibleminoritiesinCanadaisexpectedtodoubleby2017.Inlessthanadecade,48percentoftheworking-agepopulationwillbebetweentheagesof45and64.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheChangingWorkplace(continued)Manyorganizationsareseekingtorecruitmorerepresentatively.Manyemployeesarerequiredtointeractwithpeoplefromsubstantiallydifferentnationalorcorporatecultures.Increasedemphasisonteamworkasameansofjobdesignandqualityenhancement.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ValuingDiversitySomehavearguedthatorganizationsshouldvaluediversitynotjusttolerateit.Acriticalmotiveisthebasicfairnessofvaluingdiversity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ValuingDiversity(continued)Diversityanditspropermanagementcanyieldstrategicandcompetitiveadvantages:ImprovedproblemsolvingandcreativityImprovedrecruitingandmarketingImprovedcompetitivenessinglobalmarketsOrganizationsareadoptingdiversityaspartoftheircorporatestrategy.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.CompetitiveAdvantagestoValuingandManagingaDiverseWorkforceCostResource-AcquisitionMarketingCreativityProblem-SolvingSystemFlexibilityCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.StereotypesandWorkforceDiversityAmajorbarriertovaluingdiversityisthestereotype.Thetendencytogeneralizeaboutpeopleinacertainsocialcategoryandignorevariationsamongthem.Commonworkplacestereotypesarebasedongender,age,race,andethnicity.Stereotypescanhavenegativeeffectsonhowindividualsaretreatedinorganizations.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.StereotypeThreatMembersofasocialgroupfeeltheymightbejudgedortreatedaccordingtoastereotypeandthattheirbehaviourorperformancewillconfirmthestereotype.Theactivationofasalientnegativestereotypethreatinatestingsituationhasbeenfoundtoresultinlowercognitiveabilityandmathtestperformancescoresofminoritiesandwomen.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RacialandEthnicStereotypesRacialandethnicstereotypesarepervasive,persistent,frequentlynegative,andoftencontradictory.Whiteshavebeenfoundtoadvancefurtherinthehiringprocessthanblacks.Careertrackingbasedonracialorethnicstereotypingiscommon.Organizationsarereflectionsoftheenvironmentsofwhichtheyareapart.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypesOneofthemostproblematicstereotypesfororganizationsisthegenderstereotype.Womenareseverelyunderrepresentedinmanagerialandadministrativejobs.Womenholdonly14.4percentofcorporateofficerpositions.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypes(continued)Stereotypesofwomendonotcorrespondwellwithstereotypesofbusinesspeopleormanagers.Whatisthenatureofgenderstereotypes?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypes(continued)Successfulmanagersareperceivedashavingtraitsandattitudesthataregenerallyascribedtomen.Successfulmanagersareseenasmoresimilartomeninqualitiessuchasleadershipability,competitiveness,self-confidence,ambitiousness,andobjectivity.Stereotypesofsuccessfulmiddlemanagersdonotcorrespondtostereotypesofwomen.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypes(continued)Genderstereotypesleadtobiasedhumanresourcedecisions.Womensufferfromastereotypethatisdetrimentaltotheirhiring,development,promotion,andsalaries.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypes(continued)Thedetrimentaleffectsofgenderstereotypesarereducedorremovedwhendecisionmakershavegoodinformationaboutthequalificationsandperformanceofparticularwomenandanaccuratepictureofthejobthattheyareapplyingfororseekingpromotioninto.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderStereotypes(continued)SomeCanadianorganizationshavemadeeffortstoensurethatwomenarerepresentedinseniorpositions.Womenhavemadethemostsignificantprogressmovingintoseniormanagementandexecutivepositionsinthefinancialservicesindustry.Industriesthattendtobestereotypicallymalehavethelowestrepresentationofwomeninseniorpositions.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AgeStereotypesKnowingthatapersonfallsintoacertainagerangeorbelongstoaparticularagegeneration,wehaveatendencytomakecertainassumptionsabouttheperson’sphysical,psychological,andintellectualcapabilities.Whatisthenatureofwork-relatedagestereotypes?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AgeStereotypes(continued)Olderworkersareseenashavinglesscapacityforperformance.Theyareviewedaslessproductive,creative,logical,andcapableofperformingunderpressure,andashavinglesspotentialfordevelopment.Theyareperceivedasmorerigidanddogmatic,andlessadaptabletonewcorporatecultures.Theyareperceivedasmorehonest,dependable,andtrustworthy.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AgeStereotypes(continued)Thesestereotypesareinaccurate.Ageseldomlimitsthecapacityfordevelopmentuntilpost-employmentyears.Researchhasfoundthatageandjobperformanceareunrelated.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AgeStereotypes(continued)Agestereotypesaffecthumanresourcedecisionsregardinghiring,promotion,andskillsdevelopment.Olderworkersareoftenpassedoverformeritpayandpromotionsandpressuredtotakeearlyretirement.Someorganizationshaveimplementedprogramsandpracticestopromotethehiringofolderworkers.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagingWorkforceDiversityDiversityneedstobemanagedtohaveapositiveimpactonworkbehaviourandanorganization.Whatcanorganizationsdotoachieveandmanageadiverseworkforce?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagingWorkforceDiversity(continued)Selectenoughminoritymemberstogetthembeyondtokenstatus.Encourageteamworkthatbringsminorityandmajoritymemberstogether.Ensurethatthosemakingcareerdecisionsaboutemployeeshaveaccurateinformationaboutthem.Trainpeopletobeawareofstereotypes.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagingWorkforceDiversityatBoeingCanadaTechnologyDiversitydays.Diversitytraining.LanguageandASLtraining.Monthlyawarenesscampaigns.Aboriginalrecruitment.Jobshadowing.Volunteeremploymentequityanddiversityteam.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.DiversityTrainingProgramsOneofthemostcommonapproachesformanagingdiversity.Theycancausedisruptionandbadfeelingswhenalltheydoisgetpeopletoopenupandgeneratestereotypes.Awarenesstrainingshouldbeaccompaniedbyskillstrainingthatisrelevanttotheparticularneedsoftheorganization.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SuccessFactorsforDiversityProgramsBuildseniormanagementcommitmentandaccountability.Conductathoroughneedsassessment.Developawell-definedstrategytiedtobusinessresults.Emphasizeteam-buildingandgroupprocesstraining.Establishmetricsandevaluatetheeffectivenessofdiversityinitiatives.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsofTrustDoyoutrustyourbossandorganization?Employeetrusttowardmanagementisonthedecline.Trustperceptionsinfluenceorganizationalprocessesandoutcomes.Whatistrust?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatisTrust?Apsychologicalstateinwhichonehasawillingnesstobevulnerableandtotakeriskswithrespecttotheactionsofanotherparty.Trustperceptionstowardmanagementarebasedonthreedistinctperceptions:Ability,benevolence,andintegrity.Thecombinationofthesethreefactorsinfluencesperceptionsoftrust.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsofTrust(continued)Higherperceptionsofmanagementability,benevolence,andintegrityarerelatedtogreaterperceptionsoftrust.Perceptionsoftrustinmanagementarepositivelyrelatedtojobattitudes,jobperformance,andOCBandnegativelyrelatedtoturnoverintentions.TrustisconsideredtobethemostcriticalfactorwhenjudgingthebestworkplacesinCanada.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceivedOrganizationalSupport(POS)Employees’generalbeliefthattheirorganizationvaluestheircontributionandcaresabouttheirwell-being.WhenemployeeshavepositivePOS,theybelievethattheirorganizationwillprovideassistancewhenitisneeded.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalSupportTheoryEmployeeswhohavestrongPOSfeelanobligationtocareabouttheorganization’swelfareandtohelptheorganizationachieveitsobjectives.Employeesfeelagreatersenseofpurposeandmeaningandastrongsenseofbelongingtotheorganization.Employeesfeelobligatedtoreciprocatetheorganization’scareandsupport.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.POS(continued)POShasanumberofpositiveconsequencesforemployeesandorganizations.Favourabletreatmentandperceivedsupervisorsupport(PSS),fairorganizationalprocedures,andfavourablerewardsandjobconditionscontributestronglytoPOS.SupervisorswhoexperiencegreaterPOSaremoresupportiveofothers.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PredictorsandConsequencesofPOSCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.POS(continued)WhatcanorganizationsdotoimproveemployeePOS?SupportivehumanresourcepracticesthatdemonstrateaninvestmentinemployeesandrecognitionofemployeecontributionsaremostlikelytoleadtothedevelopmentofgreaterPOS.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PersonPerceptioninHumanResourcesPerceptionsplayanimportantroleinhumanresourcesandcaninfluencewhogetshiredandhowemployeesareevaluatedoncetheyarehired.Jobapplicantsformperceptionsduringtherecruitmentandselectionprocessandtheirperceptionsinfluencetheirattractiontoanorganizationandwhetherornottheydecidetoacceptajoboffer.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsintheEmploymentInterviewTheinterviewisoneofthemostcommonorganizationalselectiondevices.Theinterviewisavalidselectiondevicealthoughitisfarfromperfectlyaccurate,especiallywhenitisunstructured.Validityimproveswhentheinterviewisstructured.Whatfactorsthreatenthevalidityoftheinterview?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.FactorsthatThreatenInterviewValidityApplicantsaremotivatedtopresentafavourableimpressionofthemselves.Interviewerscompareapplicantstoastereotypeoftheidealapplicant.Interviewershaveatendencytoexhibitprimacyreactions.Interviewersgivelessimportancetopositiveinformationabouttheapplicant.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ContrastEffectsPreviouslyinterviewedjobapplicantsaffectaninterviewer’sperceptionofacurrentapplicant,leadingtoanexaggerationofdifferencesbetweenapplicants.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TwoExamplesofContrastEffectsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.StructuredEmploymentInterviewsValidityimproveswhentheinterviewisstructured.Interviewstructureinvolvesfourdimensions:EvaluationstandardizationQuestionsophisticationQuestionconsistencyRapportbuildingCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.StructuredEmploymentInterviews(continued)Interviewsaremorelikelytobestructuredwhentheinterviewerhashadformalinterviewtrainingandthefocusoftheinterviewisonselectionratherthanrecruitment.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsofRecruitmentandSelectionHowjobapplicantsaretreatedduringtherecruitmentandselectionprocessinfluencestheirperceptionstowardtheorganizationandtheirlikelihoodofacceptingajoboffer.Jobapplicantsalsoformperceptionstowardorganizationsbasedontheselectionteststheyarerequiredtocomplete.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SignallingTheoryAccordingtosignallingtheory,jobapplicantsinterprettheirrecruitmentexperiencesascuesorsignalsaboutwhatitisliketoworkinanorganization.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsofRecruitmentandSelection(continued)Jobapplicantsformmorepositiveperceptionsoftheselectionprocesswhenselectionproceduresareperceivedtobefair.Applicantswhohavemorepositiveperceptionsofselectionfairnessaremorelikelytoviewtheorganizationfavourablyandtohavestrongerintentionstoacceptajobofferandtorecommendtheorganizationtoothers.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsofRecruitmentandSelection(continued)Employmentinterviewsandworksamplesareperceivedmorefavourablythancognitiveabilitytestswhichareperceivedmorefavourablythanpersonalitytestsandhonestytests.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceptionsandthePerformanceAppraisalOnceapersonishired,furtherperceptualtasksconfrontorganizationmembers.Anindexofaperson’sjobperformanceisrequiredfordecisio