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英語(yǔ)(二)上冊(cè)課文中英文對(duì)照翻譯U-1

Howtobeasuccessfullanguagelearner?怎樣成為一名成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者“Learningalanguageiseasy,evenachildcandoit!”“學(xué)習(xí)一門(mén)語(yǔ)言很容易,即使小孩也能做得到?!盡ostadultswhoarelearningasecondlanguagewoulddisagreewiththisstatement.Forthem,learningalanguageisaverydifficulttask.Theyneedhundredsofhoursofstudyandpractice,andeventhiswillnotguaranteesuccessforeveryadultlanguagelearner.大多數(shù)正在學(xué)習(xí)第二語(yǔ)言的成年人會(huì)不同意這種說(shuō)法。對(duì)他們來(lái)說(shuō),學(xué)習(xí)一門(mén)語(yǔ)言是非常困難的事情。他們需要數(shù)百小時(shí)的學(xué)習(xí)與練習(xí),即使這樣也不能保證每個(gè)成年語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者都能學(xué)好。Languagelearningisdifferentfromotherkindsoflearning.Somepeoplewhoareveryintelligentandsuccessfulintheirfieldsfinditdifficulttosucceedinlanguagelearning.Conversely,somepeoplewhoaresuccessfullanguagelearnersfinditdifficulttosucceedinotherfields.語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)不同于其他學(xué)習(xí)。許多人很聰明,在自己的領(lǐng)域很成功,但他們發(fā)現(xiàn)很難學(xué)好一門(mén)語(yǔ)言。相反,一些人學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言很成功,但卻發(fā)現(xiàn)很難在其他領(lǐng)域有所成就。Languageteachersoftenofferadvicetolanguagelearners:“Readasmuchasyoucaninthenewlanguage.”“Practicespeakingthelanguageeveryday.”“Livewithpeoplewhospeakthelanguage.”“Don’ttranslate-trytothinkinthenewlanguage.”“Learnasachildwouldlearn;playwiththelanguage.”語(yǔ)言教師常常向語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者提出建議:“要用新的語(yǔ)言盡量多閱讀”,“每天練習(xí)說(shuō)這種語(yǔ)言”,“與說(shuō)這種語(yǔ)言的人住在一起”,“不要翻譯——盡量用這種新的語(yǔ)言去思考”,“要像孩子學(xué)語(yǔ)言一樣去學(xué)習(xí)新語(yǔ)言”,“放松地去學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言?!盉utwhatdoesasuccessfullanguagelearnerdo?Languagelearningresearchshowsthatsuccessfullanguagelearnersaresimilarinmanyways.然而,成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者是怎樣做的呢?語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)研究表明,成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者在許多方面都有相似之處。Firstofall,successfullanguagelearnersareindependentlearners.Theydonotdependonthebookortheteacher;theydiscovertheirownwaytolearnthelanguage.Insteadofwaitingfortheteachertoexplain,theytrytofindthepatternsandtherulesforthemselves.Theyaregoodguesserswholookforcluesandformtheirownconclusions.Whentheyguesswrong,theyguessagain.Theytrytolearnfromtheirmistakes.首先,成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者獨(dú)立學(xué)習(xí)。他們不依賴書(shū)本和老師,而且能找到自己學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言的方法。他們不是等待老師來(lái)解釋,而是自己盡力去找到語(yǔ)言的句式和規(guī)則。他們尋找線索并由自己得出結(jié)論,從而做出正確的猜測(cè)。如果猜錯(cuò),他們就再猜一遍。他們都努力從錯(cuò)誤中學(xué)習(xí)。Successfullanguagelearningisactivelearning.Therefore,successfullearnersdonotwaitforachancetousethelanguage;theylookforsuchachance.Theyfindpeoplewhospeakthelanguageandtheyaskthesepeopletocorrectthemwhentheymakeamistake.Theywilltryanythingtocommunicate.Theyarenotafraidtorepeatwhattheyhearortosaystrangethings;theyarewillingtomakemistakesandtryagain.Whencommunicationisdifficult,theycanacceptinformationthatisinexactorincomplete.Itismoreimportantforthemtolearntothinkinthelanguagethantoknowthemeaningofeveryword.成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)是一種主動(dòng)的學(xué)習(xí)。因此,成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者不是坐等時(shí)機(jī)而是主動(dòng)尋找機(jī)會(huì)來(lái)使用語(yǔ)言。他們找到(說(shuō))這種語(yǔ)言的人進(jìn)行練習(xí),出錯(cuò)時(shí)請(qǐng)這些人糾正。他們不失時(shí)機(jī)地進(jìn)行交流,不怕重復(fù)所聽(tīng)到的話,也不怕說(shuō)出離奇的話,他們不在乎出錯(cuò),并樂(lè)于反復(fù)嘗試。當(dāng)交流困難時(shí),他們可以接受不確切或不完整的信息。對(duì)他們來(lái)說(shuō),更重要的是學(xué)習(xí)用這種語(yǔ)言思考,而不是知道每個(gè)詞的意思。Finally,successfullanguagelearnersarelearnerswithapurpose.Theywanttolearnthelanguagebecausetheyareinterestedinthelanguageandthepeoplewhospeakit.Itisnecessaryforthemtolearnthelanguageinordertocommunicatewiththesepeopleandtolearnfromthem.Theyfinditeasytopracticeusingthelanguageregularlybecausetheywanttolearnwithit.最后,成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者學(xué)習(xí)目的明確。他們想學(xué)習(xí)一門(mén)語(yǔ)言是因?yàn)樗麄儗?duì)這門(mén)語(yǔ)言以及說(shuō)這種語(yǔ)言的人感興趣。他們有必要學(xué)習(xí)這門(mén)語(yǔ)言去和那些人交流并向他們學(xué)習(xí)。他們發(fā)現(xiàn)經(jīng)常練習(xí)使用這種語(yǔ)言很容易,因?yàn)樗麄兿肜眠@種語(yǔ)言來(lái)學(xué)習(xí)。Whatkindoflanguagelearnerareyou?Ifyouareasuccessfullanguagelearner,youhaveprobablybeenlearningindependently,actively,andpurposefully.Ontheotherhand,ifyourlanguagelearninghasbeenlessthansuccessful,youmightdowelltotrysomeofthetechniquesoutlinedabove.你是什么樣的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者?如果你是一位成功的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者,那么你大概一直在獨(dú)立地、主動(dòng)地、目的明確地學(xué)習(xí)。另一方面,如果你的語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)一直不太成功,你不妨試試上面提到的一些技巧。U-2Taxes,Taxes,andMoreTaxes稅、稅、還是稅Americansoftensaythatthereareonlytwothingsapersoncanbesureofinlife:deathandtaxes,Americansdonothaveacorneronthe"death"market,butmanypeoplefeelthattheUnitedStatesleadstheworldwiththeworsttaxes.美國(guó)人常說(shuō),人的一生有兩件事可以肯定會(huì)發(fā)生:死亡和稅收。美國(guó)人并不壟斷死亡市場(chǎng),但許多人卻感到美國(guó)以最重的賦稅領(lǐng)先于世界。Taxesconsistofthemoneywhichpeoplepaytosupporttheirgovernment.TherearegenerallythreelevelsofgovernmentintheUnitedStates:federal,state,andcity;therefore,therearethreetypesoftaxes.稅指人們?yōu)橹С终U納的資金。在美國(guó)通常有三級(jí)政府:聯(lián)邦政府,州政府及市政府,因此就存在三種稅。Salariedpeoplewhoearnmorethanafewthousanddollarsmustpayacertainpercentageoftheirsalariestothefederalgovernment.Thepercentagevariesfrompersontoperson.Itdependsontheirsalaries.Thefederalgovernmenthasagraduatedincometax,thatis,thepercentageofthetax(14to70percent)increasesasaperson'sincomeincreases.Withthehighcostoftaxes,peoplearenotveryhappyonApril15,whenthefederaltaxesaredue.收入超過(guò)幾千元的工薪人士必須向聯(lián)邦政府繳納一定比率的稅金。這一比率因人而異,取決于各人的工資數(shù)。聯(lián)邦政府實(shí)行累進(jìn)收入所得稅制,也就是說(shuō),稅率(14%~70%)隨個(gè)人收入的增加而增加,由于高額稅收,人們?cè)?月15日很不愉快,因?yàn)檫@一天是繳納稅款的日子。Thesecondtaxisforthestategovernment:NewYork,California,NorthDakota,oranyoftheotherforty-sevenstates.Somestateshaveanincometaxsimilartothatofthefederalgovernment.Ofcourse,thepercentageforthestatetaxislower.Otherstateshaveasalestax,whichisapercentagechargedtoanyitemwhichyoubuyinthatstate.Forexample,apersonmightwanttobuyapacketofcigarettesfortwenty-fivecents.Ifthereisasalestaxofeightpercentinthatstate,thenthecostofthecigarettesistwenty-sevencents.Thisfigureincludesthesalestax.Somestatesuseincometaxinadditiontosalestaxtoraisetheirrevenues.Thestatetaxlawsarediverseandconfusing.第二種稅是繳納給州政府的,這些州包括紐約,加利福尼亞,北達(dá)科他以及其他47個(gè)州中的任何一個(gè)。一些州的收入所得稅的收取辦法同聯(lián)邦政府的相似,當(dāng)然其稅率要低一些。一些州設(shè)有銷售稅,即對(duì)你在該州所購(gòu)買(mǎi)的任何商品所收的一定比率的稅金。比如,某人想買(mǎi)一包25美分的煙。如果該州收取8%的銷售稅,那么買(mǎi)這包煙要花27美分,這一錢(qián)數(shù)就包括銷售稅。一些州利用收入所得稅外加銷售稅的辦法來(lái)提高稅收,各州的稅收法規(guī)五花八門(mén),令人費(fèi)解。Thethirdtaxisforthecity.Thistaxcomesintwoforms:propertytax(peoplewhoownahomehavetopaytaxesonit)andexcisetax,whichischargedoncarsinacity.Thecitiesusethesefundsforeducation,policeandfiredepartments,publicworksandmunicipalbuildings.第三種稅是向市政府繳納的。這種稅有兩種:一種是財(cái)產(chǎn)稅(擁有房屋的人都必須交稅),另一種是本國(guó)消費(fèi)稅,即對(duì)城市汽車所征收的稅金。城市將這些資金用于教育、**和消防部門(mén)、公共設(shè)施及市政建設(shè)。SinceAmericanspaysuchhightaxes,theyoftenfeelthattheyareworkingonedayeachweekjusttopaytheirtaxes.

Peoplealwayscomplainabouttaxes.Theyoftenprotestthatthegovernmentusestheirtaxdollarsinthewrongway.Theysaythatitspendstoomuchonuselessandimpracticalprograms.AlthoughAmericanshavedifferentviewsonmanyissues,theytendtoagreeononesubject:taxesaretoohigh.由于美國(guó)人須付高額稅金,所以他們經(jīng)常感到每周有一天純粹是在為繳稅而工作。人們總是在抱怨稅收太高。他們常常**政府濫用他們的稅金。他們說(shuō)政府將太多的錢(qián)花在無(wú)用且不符合實(shí)際的項(xiàng)目上了。盡管美國(guó)人在很多問(wèn)題上有不同的看法,但他們?cè)谝粋€(gè)話題上的意見(jiàn)總是一致的:稅收太高。U-3TheAtlanticOcean大西洋TheAtlanticOceanisoneoftheoceansthatseparatetheOldWorldfromtheNew.ForcenturiesitkepttheAmericasfrombeingdiscoveredbythepeopleofEurope.大西洋是將歐洲和美洲分隔開(kāi)的海洋之一。它使南北美洲長(zhǎng)達(dá)幾個(gè)世紀(jì)之久都未被人發(fā)現(xiàn)。ManywrongideasabouttheAtlanticmadeearlysailorsunwillingtosailfaroutintoit.Oneideawasthatitreachedoutto"theedgeoftheworld."Sailorswereafraidthattheymightsailrightofftheearth.Anotherideawasthatattheequatortheoceanwouldbeboilinghot.人們對(duì)大西洋有許多誤解,這使得早期的海員不愿意遠(yuǎn)航駛?cè)氪笪餮蟆R环N想法是大西洋遠(yuǎn)抵“世界的邊緣”,海員們擔(dān)心他們會(huì)一直航行到地球邊上掉落下去。另一個(gè)想法是在赤道處,大西洋的海水是滾燙的。TheAtlanticOceanisonlyhalfasbigasthePacific,butitisstillverylarge.Itismorethan4,000miles(6,000km)widewhereColumbuscrossedit.Evenatitsnarrowestitisabout2,000miles(3,200km)wide.ThisnarrowestplaceisbetweenthebulgeofsouthAmericaandthebulgeofAfrica.大西洋的面積只是太平洋的一半,但也非常遼闊。哥倫布穿越過(guò)的地方寬達(dá)4000多英里(6000公里)。即使最窄的地方寬度也有大約2000英里(3200公里),這是一片位于南美洲最東端與非洲最西端之間的水域。TwothingsmaketheAtlanticOceanratherunusual.Forsolargeanoceanithasveryfewislands.Also,itistheworld'ssaltiestocean.大西洋有兩點(diǎn)非同尋常。其一是在如此遼闊的海洋里少有島嶼。另外,大西洋是世界上含鹽量最高的海洋。ThereissomuchwaterintheAtlanticthatitishardtoimaginehowmuchthereis.Butsupposenomorerainfellintoitandnomorewaterwasbroughttoitbyrivers.Itwouldtaketheoceanabout4,000yearstodryup.Ontheaveragethewaterisalittlemorethantwomiles(3.2km)deep,butinplacesitismuchdeeper.ThedeepestspotisnearPuertoRico.This"deep"measures30,246feet-almostsixmiles(9.6km).大西洋海水量很大,人們無(wú)法想像到底有多少水。但如果假設(shè)不再有降雨和河水注入,則需4000年大西洋才會(huì)干涸。大西洋平均水深有2英里(3.2公里)多一點(diǎn),但有些地方要深得多。最深處在波多黎各島附近,深達(dá)30246英尺——約6英里(9.6公里)。OneofthelongestmountainrangesoftheworldrisestheflooroftheAtlantic.Thismountainrangerunsnorthandsouthdownthemiddleoftheocean.Thetopsofafewofthemountainsreachupabovetheseaandmakeislands.TheAzoresarethetopsofpeaksinthemid-Atlanticmountainrange.世界上最長(zhǎng)的山脈之一從大西洋海底隆起,這條山脈沿海底中部向南北延伸,幾座山峰露出海面,形成島嶼。亞速爾群島就是大西洋中部山脈露出水面的幾座山峰。SeveralhundredmileseastwardfromFloridathereisapartoftheoceancalledtheSargassoSea.Herethewaterisquiet,forthereislittlewind.Inthedaysofsailingvesselsthecrewwereafraidtheywouldbebecalmedhere.Sometimestheywere.佛羅里達(dá)州向東幾百英里有一處海域叫馬尾藻海,這里由于很少刮風(fēng),海面很平靜。在使用帆船的時(shí)代,船員們擔(dān)心他們會(huì)因無(wú)風(fēng)而在此處無(wú)法航行。有時(shí)他們確實(shí)會(huì)遇到這種情況。Oceancurrentsaresometimecalled"riversinthesea."Oneofthese"river"intheAtlanticiscalledtheGulfStream.Itisacurrentofwarmwater.AnotheristheLabradorCurrent-coldwatercomingdownfromtheArctic.Oceancurrentsaffecttheclimatesofthelandsnearwhichtheyflow.海流有時(shí)被稱作“海洋中的河流”。大西洋有一條這種“河流”,叫做墨西哥灣流,這是一股暖水流;另外一條是拉布拉多海流——這是來(lái)自北冰洋的冷水流。洋流對(duì)流域附近大陸的氣候有影響。TheAtlanticfurnishesmuchfoodforthepeopleonitsshores.Oneofitsmostfamousfishingregions,theGrandBanks,isnearNewfoundland.大西洋為兩岸的人們提供了豐富的食物。大淺灘是最著名的捕魚(yú)區(qū)之一,位于紐芬蘭附近。TodaytheAtlanticisagreathighway.Itisnot,however,alwaysasmoothandsafeone.Stormssweepacrossitandpileupgreatwaves.IcebergsfloatdownfromtheFarNorthacrossthepathsofships.今天,大西洋是一條重要的航路,這條航路并不總是風(fēng)平浪靜,毫無(wú)危險(xiǎn)。暴風(fēng)雨會(huì)掠過(guò)洋面,堆起大浪。從北冰洋漂來(lái)的冰山也會(huì)橫穿航道。Wenowhavesuchfastwaysoftravelingthatthisbigoceanseemstohavegrownsmaller.Columbussailedformorethantwomonthstocrossit.Afastmodernsteamshipcanmakethetripinlessthanfourdays.AirplanesflyfromNewYorktoLondoninonlyeighthoursandfromSouthAmericatoAfricainfour!我們現(xiàn)在有快捷的旅行方式,這個(gè)大洋似乎也變小了。哥倫布橫越大西洋用了兩個(gè)多月的時(shí)間,一艘現(xiàn)代化快輪不到4天就可完成這一航程,而乘飛機(jī)從紐約到倫敦只用8小時(shí),從南美到非洲只用4小時(shí)。U-4ImprovingYourMemory改善你的記憶力Psychologicalresearchhasfocusedonanumberofbasicprinciplesthathelpmemory:meaningfulness,organization,association,andvisualization.Itisusefultoknowhowtheseprincipleswork.心理研究集中在有助于記憶力的幾個(gè)基本原則,即富有意義、組織、聯(lián)想和想像。知道這些原則如何發(fā)揮作用是非常有益的。Meaningfulnessaffectsmemoryatalllevels.Informationthatdoesnotmakeanysensetoyouisdifficulttoremember.Thereareseveralwaysinwhichwecanmakematerialmoremeaningful.Manypeople,forinstance,learnarhymetohelpthemremember.Doyouknowtherhyme“ThirtydayshasSeptember,April,June,andNovember…?”Ithelpsmanypeoplerememberwhichmonthsoftheyearhave30days.富有意義從各個(gè)方面影響記記力。你很難記住對(duì)你毫無(wú)意義的信息,我們可以用幾種辦法使材料變得更有意義。例如,很多人學(xué)會(huì)用韻音來(lái)幫助他們記憶。你知道“九、四、六、十一有30天……”這首押韻詩(shī)嗎?它幫助人們記住一年中哪些月份有30天。Organizationalsomakesadifferenceinourabilitytoremember.Howusefulwouldalibrarybeifthebookswerekeptinrandomorder?Materialthatisorganizedisbetterrememberedthanjumbledinformation.Oneexampleoforganizationischunking.Chunkingconsistsofgroupingseparatebitsofinformation.Forexample,thenumber4671363ismoreeasilyrememberedifitischunkedas467,13,63.Categorizingisanothermeansoforganization.Supposeyouareaskedtorememberthefollowinglistofwords:man,bench,dog,desk,woman,horse,child,cat,chair.Manypeoplewillgroupthewordsintosimilarcategoriesandrememberthemasfollows:man,woman,child;cat,dog,horse;bench,chair,desk.Needlesstosay,thesecondlistcanberememberedmoreeasilythanthefirstone.信息的組織也對(duì)我們的記憶能力造成差異。圖書(shū)館的書(shū)如果陳列得雜亂無(wú)章對(duì)我們還會(huì)有什么幫助嗎?組織過(guò)的材料比混雜的信息更容易記住。組織信息的一個(gè)例子就是組塊。組塊是將一個(gè)個(gè)單獨(dú)的信息組織成信息塊。例如,4671363這組數(shù)字如果被組塊成4671363就更容易記住。分類是另一種組織方法。假定要求你記住一組詞:男人、凳子、狗、書(shū)桌、女人、馬、孩子、貓、椅子。很多人會(huì)將這些詞分成相似種類的幾組,即男人、女人、孩子;貓、狗、馬;凳子、椅子、書(shū)桌。不用說(shuō)第二種排列比第一種排列更容易記憶。Associationreferstotakingthematerialwewanttorememberandrelatingittosomethingwerememberaccurately.Inmemorizinganumber,youmighttrytoassociateitwithfamiliarnumbersorevents.Forexample,theheightofMountFujiinJapan-12,389feet-mightberememberedusingthefollowingassociations:12isthenumberofmonthsintheyear,and389isthenumberofdaysinayear(365)addedtothenumberofmonthstwice(24).聯(lián)想指將我們要記憶的材料和我們已準(zhǔn)確記住的信息聯(lián)系起來(lái)。在記憶數(shù)字時(shí),可以將這一數(shù)字與我們所熟悉的數(shù)字或事件聯(lián)系起來(lái),例如,日本富士山的高度為12,389英尺,這一數(shù)字可以用下面的聯(lián)想法記?。?2是一年中的月份數(shù),389是一年的天數(shù)(365)加月數(shù)的兩倍(24)。Thelastprincipleisvisualization.Researchhasshownstrikingimprovementsinmanytypesofmemorytaskswhenpeopleareaskedtovisualizetheitemstoberemembered.Inonestudy,subjectsinonegroupwereaskedtolearnsomewordsusingimagery,whilethesecondgroupusedrepetitiontolearnthewords.Thoseusingimageryremembered80to90percentofthewords,comparedwith30to40percentofthewordsforthosewhomemorizedbyrepetition.Thusforminganintegratedimagewithalltheinformationplacedinasinglementalpicturecanhelpustopreserveamemory.最后一個(gè)基本原則是想像。研究表明,如果人們把需要記憶的東西進(jìn)行想像,各種記憶能力都會(huì)有顯著的提高。在一項(xiàng)研究中,一組受試者被要求使用想像法學(xué)習(xí)一些生詞,而另外一組用重復(fù)法學(xué)習(xí)生詞。用想像法記憶單詞的一組記住了80%~90%的生詞,相比之下,用重復(fù)法記憶單詞的一組只記住了30%~40%的生詞。因此,將所有的信息放在一幅內(nèi)心的圖畫(huà)里,從而形成一個(gè)整體形象,可以幫助我們保存記憶。U-5FallaciesaboutFood對(duì)食物的錯(cuò)誤看法Manyprimitivepeoplesbelievedthatbyeatingananimaltheycouldgetsomeofthegoodqualitiesofthatanimalforthemselves.Theythought,forexample,thateatingdeerwouldmakethemrunasfastasthedeer.Somesavagetribesbelievedthateatingenemiesthathadshownbraveryinbattlewouldmakethembrave.Man-eatingmayhavestartedbecausepeoplewereeagertobecomeasstrongandbraveastheirenemies.很多原始民族認(rèn)為吃某種動(dòng)物可以使他們獲得這種動(dòng)物的一些好的品質(zhì)。例如,他們認(rèn)為吃鹿可以使他們跑得像鹿一樣快。一些野蠻部落相信,吃戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中表現(xiàn)勇敢的敵人會(huì)使他們勇敢。吃人現(xiàn)象開(kāi)始發(fā)生可能是因?yàn)槿藗兛释兊孟袼麄兊臄橙四菢訌?qiáng)壯、勇敢。Amongcivilizedpeopleitwasoncethoughtthatgingerrootbysomemagicalpowercouldimprovethememory.Eggswerethoughttomakethevoicepretty.Tomatoesalsowerebelievedtohavemagicalpowers.Theywerecalledloveapplesandweresupposedtomakepeoplewhoatethemfallinlove.一些文明人曾經(jīng)認(rèn)為,姜根有某種魔力,能改善他們的記憶力。蛋能美化他們的聲音。也有人認(rèn)為西紅柿有魔力。西紅柿被稱為愛(ài)的蘋(píng)果,他們認(rèn)為吃西紅柿能使人墜入愛(ài)河。Lateranotherwrongideaabouttomatoesgrewup-theideathattheywerepoisonous.HowsurprisedthepeoplewhothoughttomatoespoisonouswouldbeiftheycouldknowthatmillionsofpoundsoftomatoesweresuppliedtosoldiersoverseasduringWorldWarII.后來(lái)又出現(xiàn)了另一個(gè)關(guān)于西紅柿的錯(cuò)誤觀點(diǎn)——西紅柿有毒。如果認(rèn)為西紅柿有毒的人知道二戰(zhàn)中數(shù)百萬(wàn)磅的西紅柿提供給了在海外的戰(zhàn)士們,他們會(huì)多么吃驚!Eventodaythereareagreatmanywrongideasaboutfood.Someofthemareverywidespread.Onesuchideaisthatfishisthebestbrainfood.Fishisgoodbrainfoodjustasitisgoodmusclefoodandskinfoodandbonefood.Butnoonehasbeenabletoprovethatfishisanybetterforthebrainthanmanyotherkindsoffood.甚至在今天也有很多關(guān)于食物的錯(cuò)誤看法,其中一些看法很普遍。一種想法認(rèn)為魚(yú)是最佳益腦食物。魚(yú)是有益于大腦的食物,就像它對(duì)肌肉、皮膚、骨骼一樣有益。但是沒(méi)有人能夠證明對(duì)于大腦來(lái)說(shuō)魚(yú)比其他種類的食物更好。Anothersuchideaisthatyoushouldnotdrinkwaterwithmeals.Washingfooddownwithwaterasasubstituteforchewingisnotagoodidea,butsomewaterwithmealshasbeenfoundtobehelpful.Itmakesthedigestivejuicesflowmorefreelyandhelpstodigestthefood.另外一種想法認(rèn)為,吃飯的時(shí)候不應(yīng)該喝水。雖然用水把食物沖下去來(lái)代替咀嚼不是個(gè)好主意,但是人們發(fā)現(xiàn)吃飯時(shí)喝點(diǎn)水是有益的。水能使消化液更自由地流動(dòng),有助于消化食物。Manyoftheideaswhichscientiststellushavenofoundationhavetodowithmixturesoffoods.Afewyearsagothebeliefbecamegeneralthatorangejuiceandmilkshouldneverbedrunkatthesamemeal.Thereasongivenwasthattheacidintheorangejuicewouldmakethemilkcurdleandbecomeindigestible.Asamatteroffact,milkalwaysmeetsinthestomachadigestivejuicewhichcurdlesit;thecurdlingofthemilkisthefirststepinitsdigestion.Asimilarwrongideaisthatfishandicecreamwheneatenatthesamemealformapoisonouscombination.很多想法是關(guān)于食物混在一起吃的,而科學(xué)家告訴我們,這些想法毫無(wú)根據(jù)。幾年前有一種很普遍的看法,認(rèn)為不能在同一餐中喝桔子汁和牛奶,其理由是桔子汁中的酸性物質(zhì)能使牛奶凝結(jié)而難以消化。事實(shí)上,牛奶在胃里總會(huì)遇到一種使它凝結(jié)的消化液,而這種凝結(jié)是消化的第一步。類似的一種錯(cuò)誤想法認(rèn)為在同一餐中吃魚(yú)和冰淇淋會(huì)形成一種有毒的化合物。Stillanotherwrongideaaboutmixingfoodsisthatproteinsandcarbohydratesshouldneverbeeatenatthesamemeal.Manypeoplethinkofbread,forexample,asacarbohydratefood.Itischieflyacarbohydratefood,butitalsocontainsproteins.Inthesameway,milk,probablythebestsinglefood,containsbothproteinsandcarbohydrates.Itisjustasfoolishtosaythatoneshouldnevereatmeatandpotatoestogetherasitistosaythatoneshouldnevereatbreadordrinkmilk.還有一種關(guān)于食物混在一起吃的錯(cuò)誤想法,即不能在同一餐中吃蛋白質(zhì)食物和淀粉質(zhì)食物。例如,很多人認(rèn)為面包是一種淀粉質(zhì)食物。雖然面包主要是一種淀粉質(zhì)食物,但它也含有蛋白質(zhì)。同樣,牛奶可能是最好的單一食物,但它也含有蛋白質(zhì)和淀粉。不要吃面包喝牛奶,這種說(shuō)法是愚蠢的,就像說(shuō)不要把肉類和土豆一起食用一樣。U-6Diamonds鉆石Diamondsarerare,beautiful,andalsoquiteuseful.Theyarethehardestsubstancefoundinnature.Thatmeansadiamondcancutanyothersurface.Andonlyanotherdiamondcanmakeaslightcutinadiamond.鉆石稀有,美麗,也很有用。它們是自然界中所發(fā)現(xiàn)的最硬的物質(zhì)。這意味著鉆石能切割其他任何表面,而且只有用鉆石才能對(duì)其他鉆石進(jìn)行微小的切割。Diamondsaremadefromcarbon.Carbonisfoundinalllivingthings,bothplantandanimal.Muchofthecarbonintheearthcomesfromthingsthatoncelived.鉆石是由碳形成的。所有的生物包括動(dòng)物和植物,都含有碳。地球上的很多碳來(lái)自于曾經(jīng)有生命的東西。Scientistsknowthatthecombinationofextremeheatandpressurechangescarbonintodiamonds.Suchheatandpressureexistonlyinthehot,liquidmassofmoltenrockdeepinsidetheearth.Itisthoughtthatmillionsofyearsagothisliquidmasspushedupwardthroughcracksintheearth’scrust.Astheliquidcooled,thecarbonchangedintodiamondcrystals.科學(xué)家們知道,高熱和高壓共同作用會(huì)使碳變成鉆石。這種高熱和高壓只存在于地球深處灼熱的巖漿中。人們認(rèn)為數(shù)百萬(wàn)年前這種巖漿從地殼的裂縫處向上涌出。當(dāng)這種巖漿冷卻后,碳就變成了鉆石晶體。Thereareonlyfourareaswhereverymanydiamondshavebeenfound.ThefirstknownareawasinIndia,wherediamondswerefoundthousandsofyearsago.Inthe1600’s,travelersfromEuropebroughtbackthesebeautifulstonesfromIndia.DiamondsbecameverypopularwiththekingsandqueensofEurope.只有四個(gè)地區(qū)已發(fā)現(xiàn)有很多鉆石。第一個(gè)知名的地區(qū)在印度。數(shù)千年前在這里就發(fā)現(xiàn)了鉆石。在17世紀(jì),歐洲的旅游者從印度帶回了這些美麗的石頭。鉆石很受歐洲國(guó)王和王后們的喜愛(ài)。Inthe1720’s,diamondswerediscoveredinBrazil.Thisdiscoverycameatagoodtime,too.India’ssupplyofdiamondswasfinallyrunningoutafter2,500yearsofminingthestones.18世紀(jì)20年代,在巴西發(fā)現(xiàn)了鉆石。這個(gè)發(fā)現(xiàn)來(lái)得也正是時(shí)候。印度的鉆石經(jīng)過(guò)2500年的開(kāi)采,其儲(chǔ)量將要耗盡。Inthe1800’s,twootherimportantareaswerefoundinRussiaandSouthAfrica.Today,mostdiamondsusedinindustrycomefromRussia.MostdiamondsusedasgemscomefromSouthAfrica.Only25percentofalldiamondsminedaregoodenoughforcuttingintogems.19世紀(jì),在俄羅斯和南非又發(fā)現(xiàn)了兩個(gè)重要地區(qū)。今天,大部分工業(yè)用鉆石來(lái)自俄羅斯。大部分用作寶石的鉆石來(lái)自南非。所有開(kāi)采出來(lái)的鉆石中只有25%適合于切割成寶石。MostofthediamondsinIndiawerefoundinstreambeds.

Peoplewouldpickuphandfulsofgravelfromthebottomofthestreamsandsortoutthediamonds.ThesediamondswereprobablycarriedfromwheretheywereformedtoIndiabygreatsheetsofmovingicethatcoveredpartsoftheearth20,000yearsago.在印度,大部分鉆石是從河底里找到的。人們常常從河底揀起一把一把的砂礫,并挑選出鉆石。可能是20,000年前覆蓋地球部分地區(qū)的巨大冰塊的移動(dòng)把這些鉆石從它們的形成地帶到了印度。Mostdiamondstodayarenotfoundinstreambeds,however.Theyareminedfromrockformationsdeepinsidetheearthcalledpipes.Scientistsbelievethatthesearepartsofvolcanoesthatwereformedwhenmoltenrockpushedupwardthroughtheearth’scrust.Thehardrockinwhichdiamondsarefoundiscalledblueground,becauseitissomewhatblue.Thebluegroundisblastedintolargepiecesofrockwhicharecarriedtothesurfacebyelevator.Thentherocksarecarefullycrushedsothatthediamondsarenotdestroyed.Next,thecrushedmaterialistakenovertowashingtables.Here,itflowsoverboardsthicklycoatedwithgrease.Sincediamondssticktogrease,theyareleftbehindbytherocksandmudwhichflowdownthetables.然而今天大部分鉆石不是在河床里找到的。它們是從地球深處叫作管子的巖層中開(kāi)采出來(lái)的??茖W(xué)家們認(rèn)為這些巖石組織是火山的組成部分,是當(dāng)熔巖向上涌過(guò)地殼時(shí)形成的。他們把發(fā)現(xiàn)有鉆石的堅(jiān)硬巖石叫作藍(lán)色脈巖,因?yàn)樗念伾悬c(diǎn)藍(lán)。人們把這種藍(lán)色脈巖炸成大塊的巖石,再用升降機(jī)把它們運(yùn)到上面。然后很小心地把這些巖石壓碎,以使鉆石不受破壞。接著,壓碎的巖石被送到?jīng)_洗桌上。在沖洗桌上,壓碎的巖石從涂著厚厚油脂的板子上流過(guò)。因?yàn)殂@石會(huì)粘在油脂上,所以巖石和泥漿流下桌子,而鉆石留了下來(lái)。Diamonds,astheyarefound,donotlookveryimpressive.Theyaregray,greasy-lookingpebbles.Experienceddiamondminerscantelladiamondimmediately.Butsomepeoplehavecarriedaroundanunusualpebbleforweeksbeforefindingoutthattheyhadgotadiamond.鉆石被發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)并不很引人注目。它們是些灰色的、看起來(lái)光滑的小圓石。有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的鉆石礦工能立刻把鉆石分辨出來(lái),但也有一些人會(huì)帶著一塊不同尋常的圓石,直到好幾個(gè)星期后才發(fā)現(xiàn)他們得到的是塊鉆石。U-7Families家庭“Family”—thewordhasdifferentmeaningsfordifferentpeople,andeventhedictionarygivesusseveraldefinitions:“agroupofpeoplerelatedbybloodormarriage,”“twoadultsandtheirchildren,”“allthosepeopledescendedfromacommonancestor,”“ahousehold,”andsoonSomepeoplethinkofafamilyasamother,afather,andtheirchildren;othersincludegrandparents,aunts,uncles,andcousins.Forsomeofus,familymeansthegroupofrelativeslivingfarawayfromhome.Forothers,havingafamilysimplymeanshavingchildren.Somefamilieshavelonghistories,whileothersknowverylittleabouttheirancestors.Nomatterifitisyoungorold,largeorsmall,traditionalormodern,everyfamilyhasasenseofwhatafamilyis.Itisthatfeelingofbelonging,ofloveandsecuritythatcomesfromlivingtogether,helpingandsharing.“家庭”這個(gè)詞對(duì)不同的人有不同的意義。甚至詞典也給出了好幾個(gè)意義:“一群由血緣或婚姻聯(lián)系起來(lái)的人”、“兩個(gè)成年人和他們的孩子們”、“從一個(gè)共同祖先延續(xù)下來(lái)的所有的人”、“在一座房子里住在一起的所有的人”等等。有些人認(rèn)為家就是母親、父親和他們的孩子們,家中的其他人還包括祖父母、嬸嬸、叔叔和堂兄妹。對(duì)一些人來(lái)說(shuō),家庭就是在離家很遠(yuǎn)的地方生活的一群親戚,而對(duì)另一些人來(lái)說(shuō),擁有一個(gè)家只意味著有孩子。有些家庭有很長(zhǎng)的歷史,而另一些家庭對(duì)自己的祖先知之甚少。無(wú)論一個(gè)家庭的歷史是長(zhǎng)還是短,規(guī)模是大還是小,是傳統(tǒng)的還是現(xiàn)代的,每個(gè)家庭都知道家是什么。它是一種歸屬感,一種愛(ài)和安全的感覺(jué)。這些感覺(jué)來(lái)自于共同生活,互相幫助和同甘共苦。Therearebasicallytwotypesoffamilies:nuclearfamiliesandextendedfamilies.Thenuclearfamilyusuallyconsistsoftwoparents(motherandfather)andtheirchildren.Themotherandfatherformthenucleus,orcenter,ofthenuclearfamily.Thechildrenstayinthenuclearfamilyuntiltheygrowupandmarry.Thenformnewnuclearfamilies.基本上有兩種家庭類型:核心家庭和大家庭。核心家庭通常由雙親(父親和母親)和他們的孩子組成。父親和母親形成核心家庭的核心或中心。孩子們一直生活在核心家庭里,直到長(zhǎng)大結(jié)婚。然后他們形成新的核心家庭。Theextendedfamilyisverylarge.Thereareoftenmanynuclearfamiliesinoneextendedfamily.Anextendedfamilyincludeschildrenparents,grandparents,uncles,aunts,andcousins.Themembersofanextendedfamilyarerelatedbyblood(grandparent,parents,children,brothers,sisters,etc.)orbymarriage(husbands,wives,mothers-in-law,etc).Theyareallrelated,sothemembersofanextendedfamilyarecalledrelatives.大家庭非常大。在一個(gè)大家庭里經(jīng)常有很多核心家庭。一個(gè)大家庭包括孩子、父母、祖父母、叔叔、嬸嬸和堂兄妹。大家庭的成員由血緣(祖父母、父母、孩子、兄弟、姐妹等)或婚姻(丈夫、妻子、婆婆等)聯(lián)系起來(lái)。他們之間有聯(lián)系,所以大家庭里的成員叫做親屬。Traditionally,allthemembersofanextendedfamilylivedinthesamearea.However,withthechangefromanagriculturaltoanindustrialsociety,manynuclearfamiliesmovedawayfromthefamilyhomeinordertofindwork.Inindustrialsocietiestoday,themembersofmostnuclearfamilieslivetogether,butmostextendedfamiliesdonotlivetogether.Thereforewecansaythatthenuclearfamilybecomesmoreimportantthantheextendedfamilyasthesocietyindustrializes.傳統(tǒng)上,大家庭中的所有成員住在同一個(gè)地方。然而,隨著農(nóng)業(yè)社會(huì)向工業(yè)社會(huì)的轉(zhuǎn)變,很多核心家庭離開(kāi)家庭聚居地去尋找工作。在今天的工業(yè)社會(huì)里,大多數(shù)核心家庭的成員生活在一起,但是大多數(shù)大家庭的成員不住在一起。所以我們可以說(shuō),隨著社會(huì)工業(yè)化的發(fā)展,核心家庭變得比大家庭更為重要。Inpost-industrialsocietiesliketheUnitedStates,eventhenuclearfamilyischanging.Thenuclearfamilyisbecomingsmallerasparentswantfewerchildren,andthenumberofchildlessfamiliesisincreasing.Traditionally,thefatherofanuclearfamilyearnedmoneyforthefamilywhilethemothercaredforthehouseandthechildren.Todaymorethan50%ofthenuclearfamiliesintheUnitedStatesaretwo-earnerfamilies–boththefatherandthemotherearnmoneyforthefamily–andinafewfamiliesthemotherearnsthemoneywhilethefathertakescareofthehouseandthechildren.Manynuclearfamiliesarealso“splittingup”–moreandmoreparentsaregettingdivorced.在像美國(guó)這樣的后工業(yè)化社會(huì)里,甚至核心家庭也在變化。因?yàn)楦改覆幌胍嗟暮⒆?,所以核心家庭變得越?lái)越小,而且無(wú)孩子家庭的數(shù)量也在增加。傳統(tǒng)上,核心家庭中的父親掙錢(qián)養(yǎng)家,而母親則做家務(wù),照看孩子。今天,在美國(guó)有超過(guò)50%的核心家庭是兩個(gè)人掙錢(qián)的家庭——父親和母親都掙錢(qián)養(yǎng)家,還有一些家庭母親掙錢(qián)養(yǎng)家而父親做家務(wù),照看孩子。很多核心家庭也正在“分裂”——因?yàn)樵絹?lái)越多的父母正在離婚。

Whatwillbetheresultofthis“splitting”ofthenuclearfamily?Socialscientistsnowtalkoftwonewfamilyforms:thesingleparentfamilyandtheremarriedfamily.Almost20%ofallAmericanfamiliesaresingleparentfamilies,andin85%ofthesefamiliesthesingleparentisthemother.Mostsingleparentsfinditverydifficulttotakecareofafamilyalone,sotheysoonmarryagainandformremarriedfamilies.Associalscientistsstudythesetwonewfamilyform,theywillbeabletotellusmoreaboutthefutureofthenuclearfamilyinthepost-industrialage.核心家庭的這種“分裂”結(jié)果將是什么?社會(huì)學(xué)家們現(xiàn)在談到兩種新的家庭模式:?jiǎn)斡H家庭和再婚家庭。幾乎20%的美國(guó)家庭是單親家庭,其中85%的單親是母親。大多數(shù)單親發(fā)現(xiàn)獨(dú)自照料一個(gè)家很困難,因此他們很快又結(jié)婚,形成再婚家庭。隨著社會(huì)學(xué)家們對(duì)這兩種新的家庭模式的研究,他們將能夠告訴我們后工業(yè)化時(shí)期有關(guān)核心家庭未來(lái)的更多的情況。U-8TelecommunicationviaSatellite衛(wèi)星通信Atthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,therewerefourpowerfulmeansoftransmittingandreceivinginformationoverlongdistances:print,photography,telegraphandtelephone.Bythemiddleofthecentury,bothradioandtelevisionhadbecomeestablishedmeansoftransmittingsoundand/orpictures.In1964,theOlympicGamesinTokyobecamethefirstprogramtobetransmittedviasatellite.在20世紀(jì)初,有四種遠(yuǎn)距離傳送信息和接收信息的有效方式:印刷、攝影、電報(bào)和電話。到本世紀(jì)中葉,無(wú)線電和電視作為傳送聲音和/或圖像的方式已經(jīng)得到確立。1964年,首次通過(guò)衛(wèi)星傳送了東京奧林匹克運(yùn)動(dòng)會(huì)的節(jié)目。InordertotransmitaneventsuchastheOlympicsviasatellite,televisionsignalsarefirstchangedintoradiowaves,whicharethensentfromastationonearthtoanorbitingsatellite.Thesatellitereceivestheradiowavesandsendsthembacktoearth,whereanotherstationpicksthemupandchangesthembackintotelevisionsignals.Becauseanyformofsoundorvisualinformationcanbechangedintoradiowaves,satellitesarecapableoftransmittingnotonlytelevisionbroadcasts,buttelephonecallsandprintedmaterialssuchasbooksandmagazines.為了通過(guò)衛(wèi)星傳送像奧運(yùn)會(huì)這樣的事件,先要把電視信號(hào)變成無(wú)線電波,然后把無(wú)線電波從地面站發(fā)射到軌道衛(wèi)星上。衛(wèi)星接收到無(wú)線電信號(hào)并把信號(hào)傳送回地球,在地球上另一個(gè)站接收電波并把電波變成電視信號(hào)。因?yàn)槿魏涡问降穆曇艋蛞曈X(jué)信息都能轉(zhuǎn)變成無(wú)線電波,所以衛(wèi)星不僅能傳送電視廣播,而且也能傳遞電話以及書(shū)、雜志一類的印刷物品的信息。Thecombinationofsatellites,whichtransmitinformation,computers,whichstoreinformation,andtelevision,whichdisplaysinformation,willchangeeveryhomeintoaneducationandentertainmentcenter.Intheory,everypersonwillhaveaccesstoanunlimitedamountofinformation.衛(wèi)星傳送信息,電腦儲(chǔ)存信息,電視顯示信息,這三者的結(jié)合將把每一家變成教育和娛樂(lè)中心。從理論上來(lái)說(shuō),每個(gè)人都可以利用無(wú)窮數(shù)量的信息。Anotherimportantuseoftelecommunicationsatelliteswasdemonstratedin1974whenthe"TeacherinSky"satellitetransmittededucationalprogramstoclassesinremoteareasoftheUnitedStates.In1975,manypeopleinIndiasawtelevisionforthefirsttimeastheywatchedprogramsaboutagricultu

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